Transition to adulthood
Are twenty-somethings (that is, young people between the ages of 20 and 29) adults? Both the lay and the professional public are looking for an answer to this question. Interest in the issue of the transition to adulthood within psychological research is growing (e.g. Tagliabue et al., 2016; Arnett & Mitra, 2021). One of the reasons is the fact that it is one of the most significant life transitions (Schulenberg & Schoon, 2012; Wood et al. 2017) and views on it differ. In the past, it has been held (Featherman & Lerner, 1985; Hogan & Astone, 1986) that the pace of biological, psychological, and social development may vary among individuals and that there may not be uniformity in the order in which developmental stages occur. However, the transition to adulthood can also be perceived more broadly. Many authors hold the opinion that for an individual to become an adult, it is not enough to reach the age of nineteen or twenty, but the gradual fulfillment of certain maturity criteria becomes important (Furstenberg et al., 2004; Steinberg 2005). This process has been considerably prolonged and slowed down compared to the past (Côté & Bynner, 2008; Macek et al., 2016; Messersmith & Schulenberg, 2010). The transition to adulthood has become a complex process, which often consists of several connected, or parallel transitions in different areas (Biggart & Walther, 2006), which can be reversible (e.g. return of adult children back to their parents, divorce...). Overall, the life cycle is becoming longer and less structured (Brzezińska, 2013).
From the point of view of age, the period of transition to adulthood is considered the stage between the ages of 20 and 30 (Arnett & Mitra, 2018; Macek et al., 2016). Research into this life stage has been ongoing abroad for almost 30 years, and its beginnings are connected with the concept of emerging adulthood, which was established by the American psychologist J. J. Arnett in the mid-1990s (Arnett, 2000). Arnett (2000) characterized the period of emerging adulthood as the period between adolescence and young adulthood (20 to 28/30 years). This developmental stage concerned, as stated by Macek et al. (2016), specifically Generation Y (people born between 1985 and 2000) or the so-called millennials. However, over the years, research findings have shown that this stage also affects the next generation. According to Arnett (2000, 2007), but e.g. and Knight & Miller (2017), several indicators are typical for this period, e.g.: the need for a longer time to achieve education, the exploration of different options for the direction of life in relationships, work or worldview, the need for space to fulfill one's desires and prepare for further life as an adult. Emerging adulthood is understood similarly by Baumgartnerová et al. (2007), or Brandstätterová and Herrmann (2015), who state that this is a time when people in their 20s and 30s must become independent from their parents and adopt their own identity. Although, from a traditional point of view, the process of identity formation is characteristic of the period of adolescence, it significantly exceeds its boundaries and also includes the period of emerging adulthood.
The mentioned period of emerging adulthood is characterized by five main features (Arnett, 2005; Arnett & Mitra, 2018). The period is both perceived as unstable (in connection with many possible changes, e.g. changing jobs, partners, etc.) and full of various possibilities (implementation of significant changes, etc.). During the period, young people explore and discover their identity for adulthood, are more self-centered (more so than at other life stages) and experience a sense of "in-between". This very feeling is very important in connection with emerging adulthood. It is most often a feeling that they are between adulthood and childhood, between work and school, between independence and dependence on other people, most often parents, and so on. Experiencing this feeling has been confirmed in several studies (e.g. Macek et al., 2007; Galanaki & Leontopoulou, 2017).
The transition to adulthood is a relatively long period of time, which is characterized by the tendency of young people to explore and experiment (Arnett & Padilla-Walker, 2015) and is associated with a high degree of objective (lower degrees of institutional structure) and subjective instability. For young people, this manifests itself in the diversity of personal goals and the restructuring of their life plans (Luyckx et al., 2011). It is one of the reasons why this period of life is perceived as one of the most heterogeneous (Arnett, 2007). People in their twenties often perceive increasing social pressure to achieve socially expected developmental milestones (independence, finding a life partner, getting a stable job...) (Shulman & Nurmi, 2010), and they also have a growing need to make important life decisions and formulate personal goals (Arnett & Padilla-Walker, 2015). In this way, not only their current life situation is influenced, but also the direction of their future, which makes this period one of the most critical in their lives (Salmela-Aro et al., 2007; Messersmith & Schulenberg, 2010).
According to the results of several studies (e.g. Negru, 2008; Shulman & Nurmi, 2010; Arnett & Mitra, 2018), the success of the transition to adulthood is associated with the fulfillment of the already mentioned expected developmental tasks (in other words, also normative goals or developmental milestones), which we deal with in the next chapter.
Normative developmental tasks
Normative developmental tasks are understood as requirements and challenges that are expected of people due to the developmental period in which they are currently located and the culture of the society in which they live (Salmela-Aro et al. 2007; Žukauskienė, 2015). Nurmi (2008), who based his definition of developmental tasks on Havighurst's theory, further specifies that the fulfillment of these tasks leads to an individual's subjective satisfaction and predicts that he will be successful in other developmental tasks as well. On the contrary, failure leads to a feeling of failure, criticism of the social environment and difficulties in achieving new tasks. Overall, we can summarize that these are age-specific developmental tasks (Seiffge-Krenke & Gelhaar, 2008) perceived as certain criteria, also referred to by other authors as markers (e.g. Norman et al., 2021) or milestones (e.g. Cepa & Furstenberg, 2021), the fulfillment of which makes an individual an adult (Tagliabue et al., 2016).
Empirical research has confirmed (e.g. Brandstätter et al., 2013; Furstenberg et al., 2004; Norman et al., 2021; Macek et al., 2016; Salmela-Aro et al., 2007; Steinberg, 2005) that, in addition to age, the criteria for reaching adulthood include, for example, starting a family, owning a household, financial independence, stable employment, taking over responsibility for one's own decisions or creating one's own identity. In his research, Molgat (2007) focused on a subjective perspective - he investigated what young people (25-29 years) consider important for their own sense of adulthood. He found that it is mainly about role transitions and social criteria such as finishing school, finding a permanent job, financial obligations, leaving the parental home, independence, responsibility, permanent relationship and parenthood. To a lesser extent, these are individual characteristics. On the contrary, Arnett (2007) with his research findings mainly emphasizes criteria at the level of the individual, for example, the ability to make independent decisions based on one's own beliefs and values, to be independent from the opinion of parents or other influences and to create an equal relationship with parents. These criteria consider e.g. McAdams (2013), or Schwartz et al. (2013) for the condition of reaching one of the important milestones, which is the identity of an adult.
From this point of view, the connection of objective markers of adulthood and individual characteristics appears to be particularly important for a successful entry into adulthood (e.g. Krahn et al. 2018). Achieving personal competences as a condition for mastering social criteria, which, however, can work the other way around, e.g. a person feels more responsible after becoming a parent. The timing and subjective assessment of maturity also play a key role here. Neugarten was one of the first to address the issue of the timing of the achievement of developmental milestones defined by society in her Theory of Social Clocks back in the 1960s (Eliason et al., 2015). She emphasized in particular the observance of the time scenario, which is characteristic for individual life periods, while pointing out that if it is not observed, one may experience a psychological crisis.
Currently, the time limit for achieving the developmental tasks of adulthood is less strict than in the past. Since approximately the 1970s, there has been a significant shift, prolongation, and individualization of the transition to adulthood (Seiffge-Krenke, & Gelhaar, 2008, Krahn et al., 2018). As mentioned in the introduction, individual tasks may or may not be fulfilled simultaneously and may not take place in the traditional normative sequence as it was in the past.
The individual timing of achieving developmental goals is therefore influenced not only by social expectations and the pressure they cause, but also by what goals young people perceive as personally important and relevant at a given moment (Barker & Galambos, 2005). Krahn et al. (2018) also point out that it is necessary to distinguish between the evaluation of maturity criteria in general and the assessment of one's own "timing" of reaching these indicators. At the same time, the authors do not deny Arnett's (2007) conclusions regarding the importance of individual character traits as conditions for reaching adulthood, but they add that objective configurations of roles and the path to adulthood have a permanent meaning for young people's cognitive interpretations of their own progress in the transition to adulthood. Authors of several studies (e.g. Eliason et al., 2015; Piotrowski et al., 2020), including longitudinal ones (Benson & Fustenberg, 2007), came to similar conclusions that the change of social roles is important in connection with reaching adulthood. The successful achievement of normative developmental goals, related in particular to assuming adult social roles and becoming independent, generally strengthens the subjective feeling of adulthood (Brzezińska, 2013) and accelerates psychosocial maturation (e.g. Piotrowski et al., 2020).
Subjective feeling of adulthood
The transition to adulthood is determined on an individual level by a subjective point of view, which reflects the extent to which a young person feels mature. One of the factors that affects the subjective feeling of adulthood is age. According to Arnett (2007), young people between the ages of 18 and 25 (that is, in the first half of the transition to adulthood) are characterized by the previously mentioned feeling "between" adolescence and adulthood, which changes with increasing age, and most people in their thirties feel fully grown. Nelson and Luster (2015) think similarly, pointing out that this is an expanding trend, but it is not culturally universal. The subjective feeling "between" adolescence and adulthood in the first half of the third decade of life has been confirmed by research in several European countries (Arnett & Padilla-Walker, 2015; Oleszkowicz & Misztela, 2015; Tsipianitis et al., 2019; Zupančič et al., 2014).
In our conditions, there is not enough research in this area. One of the few studies was conducted by Roupa (2016). The results are consistent with the trend suggested by Nelson and Luster (2015). A total of 65% of respondents reported feeling "between" and 29% of university students felt fully grown up. A Czech study (Macek et al., 2007) also produced similar results, where 64% of respondents aged 20-22 confirmed that they have not clarified their subjective adult status.
Thus, becoming an adult is related not only to the subjective feeling of adulthood, but also to overcoming socially expected challenges (Tagliabue et al., 2016). However, according to several authors (Arnett, 2007; Roupa, 2016), young people do not consider taking on normal adult roles (husband, parent...) important for defining themselves as an adult. Piotrowski et al. (2018) research confirmed that assuming an adult role helps to perceive oneself as more adult. One explanation may also be that those who engage in these roles are likely to undergo a series of psychological changes that in turn lead to a more intense sense of their own adulthood and at the same time to a strengthening of identity commitments. From the perspective of normative developmental tasks, the connection with the feeling of adulthood has been empirically confirmed specifically in the case of the transition to parenthood (e.g. Aronson, 2008; Hutteman et al., 2014), the achievement of residential independence (e.g. Seiffge-Krenke, 2016), the creation of a partner relationship (e.g. Adamczyk & Luyckx, 2015), but also entry into employment (e.g. Inguglia et al., 2015).
Conclusion
The period between 20 and 30 years of life is considered a period of transition to adulthood. This is one of the most significant and critical life transitions. It is often associated with the period of emerging adulthood, which is characterized mainly by the exploration of identity for adulthood, instability, self-focus, a spectrum of possibilities and a sense of "in-between" (e.g. Galanaki & Leontopoulou, 2017; Arnett & Mitra, 2018). As a process, the transition to adulthood has not only lengthened and slowed down compared to the past, but has also become less structured and more complex - it is made up of several connected, or parallel transitions within different areas of life, which can also be reversible (Biggart & Walther, 2006). The transition to adulthood is associated with the fulfillment of several normative tasks (or otherwise criteria, markers, milestones) that lead to the achievement of the feeling of adulthood (e.g. Cepa & Furstenberg, 2021; Norman et al., 2021). These criteria can be characterized as requirements that are expected from young people due to the developmental period and the society in which they live (Žukauskienė, 2015). Both objective markers and individual characteristics and their interconnection play a significant role in achieving normative developmental goals during the transition to adulthood (Krahn et al., 2018). Objective markers include role transitions (taking on and mastering the role of partner, the role of parent, the role of employee...) and social criteria (completing education, providing for one's own household, leaving the parental home, financial independence, obtaining a stable job...). The criteria at the individual level include, for example, independence, independent decision-making, taking responsibility for one's own decisions and creating one's own identity.
Achieving adulthood is also significantly connected with the subjective feeling of maturity of young people. This feeling may gradually increase with age, but this trend is not culturally universal, but research has confirmed this relationship in several European countries.
There is no unequivocal answer to the initial question of whether twenty-somethings can be considered adults, but this is not surprising, as this in itself reflects the current perception of adulthood as such. Age is not the only criterion in this case. The social construction of adulthood leads to the emphasis of several criteria in the form of normative developmental tasks, the fulfillment of which contributes not only to the experience of one's own adulthood and overall accelerates psychosocial maturation.
Authors: Mgr. Martina Semešiová, doc. PhDr. Beáta Ráczová, PhD. Pavel Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Faculty of Arts, Department of Psychology
The research was carried out within the project VEGA 1/0853/21 - Specifics of the transition to adulthood in the context of goals and selected personality variables and their impact on the subjective well-being of young adults. This project is being implemented thanks to support from the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sports of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences.
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