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Weighing the benefits and costs of achieving goals
Being admitted to a chosen university is one of the most important goals of a large number of people in the period of emerging adulthood. Our goal is to find out what benefits and costs are considered by high school students with this goal. In the introduction, we clarify the consideration of benefits and costs as a cognitive process that is part of achieving goals, then we address the expectations of students associated with university. The core of the research is the content analysis of the reported profits and costs when considering the achievement of the goal of being admitted to the selected university.
Achieving goals is a process described by the theory of action phases and the theory of mindset in action phases (English: Mindset theory of Action phases, translation according to Bavoľár et al. 2021). The theory of action stages includes four consecutive stages that contain specific tasks that an individual must fulfill in order to successfully achieve a goal. It is a pre-decisional (English: predecisional, translation according to Bavoľár et al. 2021) phase, when the individual chooses a potential goal from among various wishes and desires. It considers the benefits and costs of potential targets and evaluates them based on feasibility and attractiveness (Gollwitzer, 2012; Keller et al. 2019). This phase ends with the decision to achieve the given goal. The second phase is the pre-actional (translation according to Bavoľár et al. 2021) phase, when the individual begins to plan goal-oriented behavior, reevaluates the ways, place and time of achieving goals. The third phase is the actional phase, which is typical of the effort to bring goal-oriented behavior to a successful end. The focus is mainly on persistence, determination and resistance to obstacles (Gollwitzer, 2012). The last phase is the post-actional (translation according to Bavoľár et al. 2021) phase, when the individual decides whether the goal has already been achieved or whether further efforts need to be made (Gollwitzer, 2012; Keller et al., 2019). Successfully achieving a goal increases the likelihood of similar behavior and goal selection in the future (Kwan et al., 2018).
The above-mentioned theory of setting the mind in action phases is also based on the theory of action phases. It describes two cognitive procedures, or mind settings, which are activated in individual parts. It is a deliberative and implementation mindset (Gollwitzer, 2012). In a deliberative frame of mind, the individual focuses on all available information regarding the goal and evaluates it more or less impartially. The consideration of profits and costs associated with achieving the goal is more pronounced in this setting. At the same time, individuals are less optimistically biased and demonstrate a wider range of visual attention. In the implementation mind-set, there is a greater focus on planning the steps to achieve goals. In contrast to the deliberative setting, individuals are more optimistically biased, overestimate the attractiveness and attainability of the goal, and display a higher degree of illusion of control (Gollwitzer, 2012; Keller et al., 2019).
When considering profits and costs, we can classify four areas (Bavoľár et al. 2021). For approximation, we also present specific examples for each area related to our research, which concerns grammar school students. It can be the gains associated with achieving a goal, for example if I decide to go to college it can get me a degree, an education and a job. Then there are the gains associated with not reaching the goal, that is, if I don't get into college, I can get a job, a year to find out what I really want to do, and the possibility of being alone. The same distribution applies to the costs associated with the objective. An example of costs associated with achieving a goal can be time investment or cognitive load associated with preparation requirements. The costs associated with not achieving the goal can be, for example, disappointment, or other negative feelings associated with the expectation of studying at a university, or the increased difficulty of finding a job after graduating from a general gymnasium. We can further distinguish these four areas based on whether they are perceived as consistent or inconsistent with the goal. Gains associated with achieving and costs associated with not achieving a goal are consistent, and conversely, gains associated with not achieving and costs associated with achieving a goal are perceived as goal inconsistent (Beckmann & Gollwitzer, 1987). As it follows from previous theories, consideration of benefits and costs is present mainly in the deliberative mindset (Gollwitzer, 2012), but persists to a certain extent in all phases of goal achievement (Bavoľár et al., 2021). A careful consideration of benefits and costs, especially in the first phase of achieving goals, has several positive effects. For example, to reduce the illusion of control, in other words to make a more realistic evaluation of cause and effect and to reduce the optimistic bias (Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989; Taylor & Gollwitzer, 1995). In addition, a reduction in the illusion of positive self-perception (Taylor & Gollwitzer, 1995) and a more accurate prediction for the future and increased awareness of available information regarding the goal (Gagné & Lydon, 2001; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987).
Student expectations from universities
In our research, we focused on considering the benefits and costs associated with college. To our knowledge, no research has addressed students' expectations from the perspective of considering benefits and costs and achieving goals. However, as an overview, we have summarized the general expectations of students of various researches. These expectations can provide insight into the issue and what major themes we may discover in our research.
Byrne and Flood (2005) state that the main expectations associated with college include broadening one's horizons, acquiring new skills and knowledge, and of course obtaining a degree and employment in a given field. In addition, the social aspect in the form of creating new relationships. From our point of view, these aspects could fall into the category of gains associated with achieving goals. The authors also state that students have problematically low expectations regarding the time they need to invest in their studies. Byrne et al. (2012) summarized the results of several researches that describe three basic categories with different names but very similar content. These categories relate mainly to the study focus, which is mainly focused on gaining new knowledge and the sincere joy of studying. Then there is the career focus, which mainly refers to goals related to career, salary and the like. Then there are activities that concern, for example, meeting new people, leisure activities, or avoiding certain situations, for example delaying starting work. In this case, the authors found intellectual growth and career orientation to be the most significant factors. Baloo et al. (2015), for example, mention the improvement of career prospects and personal development as the most prominent expectations associated with university studies. It should be pointed out that, in our understanding, these expectations are connected to only one of the examined categories, namely the gains from achieving the goal. Qualitative research (Jackson et al. 2000) dealing not only with positive but also with negative expectations associated with study describes positive academic (e.g.: "I will learn more in depth what interests me.") and social (e.g.: "I will have fun and have a rich social life.") expectations and negative academic (e.g.: "I will have many tasks.") and social ("It will take me longer to feel comfortable with new people.") expectations. The mentioned research presents results from abroad. According to Ližbetová (2017), Slovak respondents expect from universities to obtain a degree, knowledge, opportunities for better employment and student life. Similarly, Czech respondents (Macháček, 2007) state that their decision to study is mainly linked to the possibility of interesting work, knowledge within the field and social security.
Current Research
The goal of our research is to find out what specific benefits and costs are considered by students who aim to get into a certain college and to create categories representing the content of the considered benefits and costs. We expect that the gains associated with achieving the goal, i.e. admission to the chosen university, will mainly be represented by categories including the acquisition of education, knowledge, improved job opportunities, whether related to job offers, salary, or the acquisition of a profession that can only be performed after graduating from university. We assume that the costs of achieving the goal will mainly relate to the time and effort that must be expended and possibly adaptation to new people and the environment. Estimating the benefits of not reaching the goal, i.e. not being accepted to college, is more difficult. It could mainly be about getting time (eg: a year off) to pursue activities of interest, or finding a job. The costs of not achieving the goal could include already spent effort and time, or postponing starting college by a year.
Sample and Procedure
A total of 114 respondents participated in the research. These were gymnasium students mainly from Košice (95.4%), the rest from Nova Bana, Púchov and Zlaty Moraviec (4.6%). Students of the third year of a four-year study were most represented (83.3%), then students of the fourth year of a five-year study (8.8%) and finally students of the seventh year of an eight-year study (7.9%). Of these students, there was a preponderance of women (73.7%) compared to men (26.3%). The average age of the respondents was exactly 18 years. The data was collected mostly in person (92.1%) so that the participants were provided with QR codes, which the respondents scanned with an electronic device, which subsequently linked to the website with the questionnaire, the rest via e-mail addresses. All data were entered into an online questionnaire created in Qualtrics. Data collection took place from 21.6 to 3.7. 2022. Participants were informed about anonymity and voluntary participation.
Method and analysis
The questionnaire battery investigated several variables, in the following text we present only those that are relevant to the presented research.
College as a considered goal. Respondents were asked to list three colleges/majors they are considering, with the next school year becoming a goal they would like to achieve. The instruction was as follows: "Now we ask you to indicate which universities and majors you are considering. Please indicate those that could be your goals that you would like to achieve next year."
Considered profits and costs were ascertained through statements that the respondents had to complete. For the gains associated with achieving the goal, it was the statement: "If I get into this school/major, I could/could gain:", for the costs associated with achieving, it was the statement: "If I get into this school/major, I could/could lose/would have to spend:", for the gains associated with non-attainment, it was the statement: "If I don't get into this school/major, I could/could gain:" and for the costs associated with not achieving: "If I don't get into this school/field, I could lose/have to spend:" Since the respondents mentioned three schools, the given statements were repeated three times, that is, they answered all statements separately for each mentioned school/field.
The answers were processed through content analysis. All responses were assigned a category. Subsequently, we processed these categories into broader categories and subcategories. For example, if someone stated that if they got into a given school, they would gain knowledge, a degree, and a well-paid job in the future, they were classified under the subcategories of education, degree, and well-paying job, while education and degree belonged to the broader category of gains focused on study and education, and employment with a good salary to the broader category of gains focused on employment and career. After processing, the file was sent to three evaluators who checked the correctness of the categorization and provided a rating of the categories, based on which we edited the file into the final version.
Results
The first step of data processing was the creation of categories and subcategories individually for the gains of achieving the goal, the costs of achieving the goal, the gains of not achieving the goal, and the costs of not achieving the goal, i.e. (not) being accepted to college. In table no. 1 we list the categories and subcategories of the gains of achieving the goal. The main categories of gains were the acquisition of study and education, employment and career, personal pleasure, recognition and respect, travel and leaving home, and social gains in terms of making new friendships.
Table no. 1 Goal Achievement Gains Categories
In table no. 2 we list the costs associated with achieving the goal, i.e. what the respondents would have to spend, or what they could lose if they were accepted to any of the schools they mentioned. The categories related to effort and energy, free time, finances, which the respondents would have to invest if they were to get to the university in question. In addition, they stated that they could lose contact with loved ones and leave home, adapt to a new environment, lose other options and experience certain negative psychological aspects.
Table no. 2 Categories of cost of achieving the goal
In table no. 3 we present what gains were considered in connection with not achieving the goal, in other words, what the respondents could get if they did not get to the chosen university. The categories mainly related to obtaining other possibilities, time, new experiences and feedback, the possibility to stay with loved ones and at home, positive psychological aspects. The category "no/unconsidered gains" includes responses from respondents who either said that they did not consider the gains of not reaching the goal or that they did not see anything positive about not reaching the goal. If such a response occurred at any of the three mentioned universities, it was included in this category. This means that even if the respondent mentioned some profits for two of the three selected schools, but for one he said that he did not consider any profits, his answer was recorded.
Table no. 3: Non-target profit categories Category
The last part consists of the costs of not achieving the goal. It is about what the respondents could lose or would have to spend if they were not admitted to the university. The created categories mainly related to the loss of education that the respondents could get at the given school, further time, a career for which specific education would be a prerequisite, finances and the possibility to leave home. Furthermore, the respondents stated that they would have to make a lot of effort and could experience various negative psychological aspects. These categories are approximated in table no. 4.
Table no. 4: Categories of costs of not reaching the target
Discussion
The goal of the research was to examine the benefits and costs of universities considered by high school students whose goal is to get to a university. Through content analysis, we created basic categories and subcategories of considered profits and costs of achieving and not achieving the goal.
First, we described the gains associated with achieving the goal. That is, if the respondents were to get into one of the schools that they stated as their goal, they consider the acquisition of education as their main gain, which includes, for example, the acquisition of knowledge, a degree, but also education at a high-quality level. Furthermore, there are career-related gains that college could provide them with. In addition to the fact that they could get a job under this category, we also included answers related to a higher salary, more job offers, or making the necessary contacts. These categories were in line with our expectations and also coincide with the results of other research (e.g.: Ližbetová, 2017; Macháček, 2007) and at the same time they appeared most often in the answers. Another category was personal pleasure. This category included those who listed, for example, joy, the fulfillment of a dream, or stated that they would really enjoy and fulfill the given study or career associated with the given field. We evaluate these answers positively as they may reflect internal motivation. Respondents also mentioned gaining recognition and respect, whether from themselves or other people, and gaining social status and prestige was also included here. The last category was social orientation, where the subcategory was forming new friendships. This category had the lowest number of responses, which was surprising as it was mentioned in expectations research (Byrne et al., 2012; Jackson et al., 2000).
Then we described the costs associated with achieving the goal. The created categories represent what the respondents would have to spend, or what they could lose if they got into the school they chose. The most represented categories related to expenditure of effort and time. In addition to the higher frequency of answers, the very content of the answers (eg: "A lot of time and I would have to spend a lot of energy.", "A lot of effort, study a lot, devote myself fully to studies.") indicates that the respondents consider the time requirement as well as the need to make a large amount of effort. These results do not match those of Byrne and Flood (2005), who report that students have problematically low expectations of the time to invest in studying. However, it should be noted that the frequency and content of the responses do not allow us to compare the expected investment of time and effort with the real, required investment of time and effort. Another category was separation from loved ones and leaving home. This category is interesting because the departure was also perceived as a profit and a variation of this category appears in all considered profits and costs. We can therefore conclude that leaving home represents a certain ambivalence in the respondents' answers. The largest representation of the category of leaving home was related to the costs associated with not reaching the goal. That is, even though this answer appeared in all aspects of benefits and costs, most often leaving home was perceived as a cost in achieving the goal, which points to the importance of social support. Another cost considered was the financial resources associated with the study. Then there were the negative psychological aspects. Despite the fact that this category does not have a high frequency of answers, the content of the answers is worth mentioning (eg: "Joy of life.", "Deteriorated state of mental health."). In our opinion, this category is connected with the next category, which is adaptation. Concepts related to psychological health such as stress were also mentioned in this category (eg: "Great effort to overcome fear and anxiety."). The difference between these categories is that in the first case the respondents consider the possible deterioration of mental health, and in the adaptation category they talk about making efforts to maintain health, overcome stress and adapt to new conditions.
The other part was the profits of not reaching the goal. That is, what the respondents could get if they did not get into the school they chose. In this case, the category that included profits in the form of other options was the most common. So, for example, the possibility of getting a job, trying to apply to another university and/or department, or trying to apply for the next academic year, or unspecified options (eg: "Space to develop in other areas."). The second category consisted of no/unconsidered gains. Despite the high frequency of responses in this category, it should be noted that the respondents commented on three schools, and their answer was recorded even if they mentioned a profit for some school. So, for example, if the respondent stated about one school: "Saving money." and for others he stated: "Nothing." A careful consideration of all benefits and costs is important for successful pursuit of a goal. This category indicates that the respondents in several cases did not see anything positive in the fact that they would not be admitted to college. Another reported gain was time, which referred to time for own, leisure activities, tutoring and better preparation and self-development. Then it was about getting new experience and feedback. New experiences mainly related to experiences with failure, and feedback mainly related to the suitability of the chosen school/field, or information about insufficient preparation or knowledge. The next category related to the possibility of staying at home and with loved ones. The last category related to positive psychological aspects. Answers included in this category indicated that if the respondents were not accepted into college, it could motivate them, they would experience less stress and their mental health could improve. Despite the fact that this category has positive implications, it was very poorly represented by the number of responses.
The last category consisted of the costs of not achieving the goal. That is, what the respondents could lose or what they would have to spend if they were not accepted to college. The most represented and most diverse category was the expenditure of effort and energy. It was about making an effort to get the respondents accepted to another school or the next academic year, to cope with the disappointment and to change their plans and the efforts they had already made. Another category is negative psychological aspects. This category has negative implications also due to the frequency, but also the content of the answers. The main subcategories were loss of motivation, reduced self-confidence, psychological health and experiencing disappointment. As an example, here are some answers: "It would be very bad for me, that is, I would lose all my mental health.", "Anxiety, depression.", "I would lose the joy of living.", "I could lose a good future.", "Taste and meaning of life." These responses may indicate a lack of coping strategies and the severity of perceived failure. Although this failure is imagined and may not reflect real responses, the frequency and content of these responses should certainly be addressed. The next category was the loss of education, where we included knowledge, quality studies, studying what the respondents are interested in and obtaining a degree. Another perceived loss was the loss of time, which referred to the time invested, the time to start over and the delay of starting by a year. The respondents also mentioned the loss of a potential career that the given education could provide them. In addition, the loss of already spent funds. The last category was the loss of the option to leave. What is interesting about this category, as we already mentioned, is that it is represented across all profits and costs.
The research contribution is an examination of the perceived benefits and costs associated with college. Among the benefits of being admitted to college are mainly the acquisition of an education, a career, but also personal pleasure. The costs associated with admission to college mainly concern the investment of effort, free time, leaving home and separation from loved ones. According to the respondents, not being admitted to college could bring other opportunities, gaining time, experience and feedback. An interesting contribution is also the knowledge that the profits of not reaching the goal were often not considered in our case, or the respondents indicated that the given situation would not bring them any profits. The costs of not being admitted to college would mean a lot of effort and time wasted for the respondents. At the same time, the described negative psychological aspects (decrease in mental health, experiencing disappointment) point to an issue that should be given greater attention, for example by supporting the development of a strategy for coping with difficult life situations. In terms of achieving goals, careful consideration of benefits and costs is important. For example, reducing the illusion of control, optimistic bias or self-perception, but also more accurate prediction of the future and noticing available information regarding the goal (Gagné & Lydon, 2001; Gollwtizer & Kinney, 1989; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987; Taylor & Gollwitzer, 1995). Therefore, our main recommendation for professionals working in this area is to pay attention to the development of coping strategies in difficult situations, to the experiences and fears that students may have in trying to be admitted to college, as well as to the provision of information related to achieving goals and highlighting the positive aspects of failure. Based on our analysis, we cannot assess how thoroughly these profits and costs were considered. We can point out that the most answers occurred when considering the gains of achieving the goal and the least when considering the gains of not achieving the goal, while in this case it was also explicitly stated in the answers.
Limitations include the size (114 respondents) and the homogeneity of the sample (predominance of women, only students of a certain year of high school), which could affect the generalizability of our results. The results therefore apply mainly to secondary school students whose goal is to get to university. As we have already mentioned with the negative implications of the considered gains and costs of not achieving the goal, the answers regarding the reactions to failures may not reflect the real reactions of the respondents and rather tell about the imagined and expected reactions. Another limitation is the method used, specifically the use of four open questions, which may not have provided a sufficiently deep insight into the issue. In addition, these questions were included with a number of other variables, and the length of completion may have caused respondents to provide limited responses.
Author: Mgr. Ester Nosáľová Pavel Jozef Šafárik University in Košice Project: APVV-19-0284 - Factors of choosing and achieving long-term goals in young people in the transition to adulthood
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