Inclusive Labour Market in Slovakia and Italy: From Administrative Registration to Professional Management of the Social Economy

Legislative and Conceptual Comparison: The Slovak Formalistic and Italian Pragmatic Approach

The comparative analysis highlights the different conceptual foundations of both systems in supporting the vocational integration of persons with disadvantages. The Slovak model is strongly oriented toward registration and administrative processes, while the Italian model emphasizes support for functional autonomy and the practical realization of work inclusion.

Definition of Target Groups and Their Activation: Conceptual Foundations of Vocational Integration

In the Slovak legal framework, determined by Act No. 112/2018 Coll. on Social Economy and Social Enterprises, the process of vocational integration is not conceived as an automated administrative mechanism. Although the legislation in § 2, paragraphs 5 and 6 strictly defines the target groups (disadvantaged and vulnerable persons), their participation in the sector is not the result of directive assignment by the state. On the contrary, the definition of a social economy entity under § 3 emphasizes that these are activities carried out independently of state authorities.

The key § 12 defines an integration enterprise as an entity whose social impact is the employment of a specified percentage of target groups, but the selection of employees remains fully within the competence of the enterprise. Registration with labour offices (§ 27a) serves primarily as a verification basis for eligibility for investment aid (§ 18) or wage incentives, not as a tool for compulsory mediation. The integration process thus retains market attributes, where the social enterprise acts as an autonomous employer and the jobseeker as an active subject who must actually find their place in the network of registered enterprises.

Slovak Republic (Act No. 112/2018 Coll. and Act No. 5/2004 Coll.)

• § 2, paragraphs 5 and 6: Definition of a disadvantaged and vulnerable person (age, education, health status, social situation).
• § 3: Basic definition of a social economy entity as independent from the state.
• § 12: Definition of an integration enterprise and conditions for employing 30 % of disadvantaged/vulnerable persons.
• § 18: Rules for investment and wage aid tied to these persons.
• § 27a: Role of the Information System of the Social Economy in data monitoring.

The fundamental difference in the process of vocational integration between the Slovak and Italian models lies in the competence framework of key institutions and the degree of institutional interconnection of actors. The Slovak system, determined by Act No. 112/2018 Coll. on Social Economy and Act No. 5/2004 Coll. on Employment Services, defines in § 2, paragraphs 5 and 6 the target groups of disadvantaged and vulnerable persons, but their path into a social enterprise is not the result of an automated administrative mechanism. The Slovak Office of Labour, Social Affairs and Family (ÚPSVaR) acts primarily as a verification body, whose registry under § 27a serves as a basis for drawing state aid and wage incentives (§ 18), while recruitment itself remains fully within the autonomy of the social enterprise as an independent entity under § 3. The connection between the jobseeker and the enterprise is thus based on individual initiative, and even the institute of替代 performance under § 64 of Act No. 5/2004 Coll. remains at the level of contract placement without a direct link to a specific individual integration plan.

In contrast, the Italian model, based on Laws No. 381/1991 and No. 68/1999, transforms the person into an active subject of work inclusion and social rehabilitation. Unlike Slovak practice, the process here is institutionally integrated: after assessment of health status by a medical commission under Law No. 104/1992, the person with a disadvantage is automatically directed into the registry of the Centro per l'impiego (CPI). In accordance with Article 6 of Law No. 68/1999, the CPI performs the function of an active mediator through the system of collocamento mirato (targeted placement). This mechanism allows expert commissions within the CPI to assess the residual working capacity of the jobseeker (Article 2 of Law No. 68/1999) and to allocate them purposefully to Type B social enterprises, defined in Article 1 of Law No. 381/1991. A crucial differentiating element is Articolo 12 of Law No. 68/1999, which, unlike Slovak替代 performance, requires a tripartite agreement between the private employer, the social enterprise, and the CPI. This mechanism guarantees that financial resources, especially in the public sector and state administration, are through contracts for social enterprises directly tied to the process of vocational integration of a specific person from protected categories (categorie protette), over which the CPI exercises the function of guarantor and approver of the integration plan.

The Italian system thus, unlike the Slovak administrative-verification approach, integrates the medical assessment, institutional assistance, and market mechanisms into one coherent whole, thereby minimizing barriers to entry for disadvantaged and vulnerable persons into the labour market.

Italian Republic (Laws No. 381/1991, No. 68/1999, and No. 104/1992)

• Article 1 (Law 381/1991): Defines the mission of social cooperatives (Cooperativa sociale) as pursuing the general interest of the community and the human integration of citizens.
• Article 4 (Law 381/1991): Exhaustive list of categories of disadvantaged persons for the purposes of Type B social cooperatives.
• Article 2 (Law 68/1999): Definition of collocamento mirato (targeted placement) – a set of tools for assessing residual working capacity and matching with a suitable job.
• Article 6 (Law 68/1999): Establishes the role of the Centro per l'impiego (CPI) as an active mediator that manages the lists of disadvantaged persons and oversees their placement.
• Articolo 12 (Law 68/1999): Mechanism of tripartite agreements (company – social cooperative – CPI), which allows a company to transfer its integration obligation to the cooperative in exchange for a contract, but with a direct link to the job of a specific person.
• Law No. 104/1992: Framework law on the rights of persons with disabilities, under which medical commissions determine the degree of disadvantage for subsequent automatic registration in the CPI.

The Role of the State and Local Government: Delegation of Competences and Institutional Model

In the Italian system, the delivery of social services is significantly delegated to social cooperatives, which play an important role in the vocational integration of persons with disadvantages. This model is based on the assumption that social economy organizations can respond more flexibly to the needs of local communities while creating economically sustainable employment opportunities.

In Slovakia, the provision of support in the area of vocational integration remains largely centralized within the public sector. Social enterprises are often linked to subsidy mechanisms, which in some cases leads to their perception more as a tool for implementing project schemes financed from public sources than as stable labour market actors.

In line with the expert views of Professor Schavel and Associate Professor Kuzyšin, who have long called for deepening the professionalization of Slovak social work, this contribution also finds it necessary to clearly define new expert competences.

Comparison of Key Pillars of the System

Collocamento mirato in the Vocational Integration System (Legge 68/1999)

A significant pillar of the Italian system for the vocational integration of persons with disabilities is the aforementioned Law No. 68/1999, which introduces the mechanism of collocamento mirato (targeted placement). Unlike traditional, static quota models, this system, according to Article 2 of the cited law, defines integration as a dynamic process of aligning the real capabilities of an individual with the specific needs of a job. Persons belonging to protected categories (categorie protette) are, after assessment by a medical commission, automatically directed into the registry of the Centro per l'impiego (CPI). Here the process does not end with an administrative registration but continues with a professional assessment of residual working capacity and the development of an individual integration plan. The key tools are agreements under Article 12, which allow both the public and private sectors to fulfil their integration obligations through strategic partnership with social enterprises. This model transforms a formal obligation into a managed inclusion process, where the CPI guarantees that allocated financial resources are directly tied to professional support and sustainable employment of a specific worker.

Potential for Application in the Conditions of the Slovak Republic

Implementing the principles of collocamento mirato in the Slovak context would require a shift from the current administrative-verification model to one of active mediation. Inspiration from Italian practice can be found in the following points:

• Transformation of the role of ÚPSVaR: Labour offices, following the example of the CPI, could assume the role of active coordinator, not only registering jobseekers for the purposes of state aid under Act No. 112/2018 Coll., but directly participating in matching their profiles with vacancies in registered social enterprises.
• Reform of替代 performance: The current替代 performance under § 64 of Act No. 5/2004 Coll., which is often perceived merely as an accounting operation (purchase of goods/services), could be conditional on the existence of a tripartite agreement (employer – social enterprise – labour office). This would ensure that the contract primarily finances a specific job and professional guidance for the person with a disadvantage, similarly to Italian Articolo 12.
• Focus on residual capacity: The Slovak assessment system could be supplemented with a methodology for evaluating work potential that would not only examine the degree of reduction in ability to work (diagnosis) but would identify remaining skills usable in the specific environment of the social economy.
• Mandatory use of social aspects in the public sector: State administration and local governments could mandatorily use reserved contracts for social enterprises as the primary tool for fulfilling their legal quotas, thereby creating a stable and predictable demand for the work of disadvantaged persons.

Disability & Diversity Management as a Tool for Managed Inclusion

Experience from Italian practice suggests that successful vocational integration of persons with disadvantages is the result of a coordinated professional process. This process requires interdisciplinary competences at the intersection of human resources management, social work, and vocational rehabilitation.

In this context, the professional profile of the Disability & Diversity Manager (DDM) has been developing in recent years, whose role is to coordinate the integration process of disadvantaged employees within an organization.

Professional Profile of the Disability & Diversity Manager

In the Italian environment, the Disability & Diversity Manager is understood as a professional who mediates communication between the employer and the person with a disadvantage.

Their role includes:

• Analysis of work processes Identifying job positions suitable for persons with disadvantages and proposing modifications to the work environment or work procedures.
• Assessment of work potential Evaluating the individual abilities and limitations of persons registered within the "categorie protette" (protected categories).
• Coordination of the integration process Accompaniment of the employee from the initial interview through to stabilization of the employment relationship.

Comparative Analysis: Slovak "Assistant" – Italian Diversity and Disability Manager

The Slovak system in social enterprises generates positions of "instructors" or "assistants," who are perceived primarily as caregivers – a cost item of the system. The Italian model defines the DDM as a value generator.

"Articolo 14" as a Tool for Cooperation between Enterprises and Social Enterprises

An important complement to the Collocamento mirato system established by Law Legge 68/1999 is the mechanism regulated in Article 14 of Legislative Decree No. 276/2003, adopted under the so-called Biagi Reform. This tool allows enterprises to fulfil part of their obligations arising from the quota system for employing persons with disabilities through cooperation with social cooperatives.

In practice, this is a model in which a company contracts a social enterprise to provide services or production activities, while the social cooperative employs persons from protected categories. The economic relationship between the company and the social enterprise thus simultaneously fulfils an integration function in the labour market.

The specificity of this mechanism is its focus particularly on persons with disabilities who face the greatest barriers to entering the open labour market. Type B social cooperatives provide a work environment adapted to their needs and at the same time act as standard suppliers of services or products to the business sector.

From a comparative perspective, this model represents an interesting example of linking social policy and market mechanisms. Some of its principles could also be relevant to discussions on the further development of vocational integration tools in the Slovak environment, particularly in relation to the system of替代 performance regulated in Act No. 5/2004 Coll.

From Atomization to Integration: Limits of the Slovak Model of Support for Vocational Integration

One of the significant problems of the system supporting the employment of persons with disabilities in Slovakia is the fragmentation of competences among multiple institutional and professional actors. The support process is often divided among various professionals – for example, social workers, psychologists, therapists, or employment counsellors – with individual interventions focusing on partial aspects of a person's situation. What is missing, however, is a coordination mechanism that would systematically link these interventions with real labour market opportunities.

Comparative experience from Italy points to a different approach based on the integration of services. Within the "Collocamento mirato" system, a model of support coordination is gradually developing through professionals who connect the health, social, and work aspects of vocational integration. In practice, this role is often fulfilled by the function of Disability Manager, who acts as a coordination point between the employer, public institutions, and the person with a disability.

Such an approach enables a shift from fragmented interventions to integrated support for work inclusion. The comparative perspective therefore suggests that strengthening coordination and integration mechanisms could represent one of the possible directions for the further development of employment policy for persons with disabilities in the Slovak environment as well.

Economic Sustainability: From Grant Scheme to System Self-Regeneration

A critical aspect of the Slovak social economy (Act No. 112/2018 Coll.) is its high degree of sensitivity to the cyclical drawing of external resources. Most Slovak social enterprises exhibit considerable vulnerability, with their life cycle often directly determined by the timeframe of EU fund calls. Unlike this model, Italian Type B social enterprises (Legge 381/1991) are built on pillars that ensure their long-term market viability independent of direct subsidy schemes.

Market Orientation of Cooperatives

In the Italian system, the existence of a Type B social enterprise is not primarily conditioned by passive state subsidy policy, but by its ability to generate added social and economic value through actual performance in the market.

• Sectoral establishment and operational efficiency: Italian social enterprises represent relevant entities in high-value-added sectors, encompassing complex building management, archival digitalization, logistics, precision industrial component manufacturing, and specialized administrative support in healthcare (e.g., management of client centres and call services). Their market position is not the result of preferential treatment, but of high expertise and the ability to compete on quality of performance in a standard economic environment.
• Strategic use of reserved contracts: Italian legislation allows local authorities to actively apply social clauses in public procurement, from environmental infrastructure maintenance to ecological and operator services. This mechanism does not represent market distortion but a strategic allocation of public resources that, through inclusion, purposefully reduces secondary state costs for the social system.

Transformation of Passive Costs into Economic Benefit

While the Slovak narrative often views a disadvantaged person primarily through the lens of passive social transfers (material needs benefits, compensatory allowances), the Italian model transforms this relationship into a process of generating economic value.

• System of selective contribution relief: The Italian state applies a mechanism of exemption from social security contributions for employees from protected categories (categorie protette). These freed-up resources, however, do not represent pure profit for the enterprise; the legislation strictly imposes an obligation to reinvest them in internal development. This concerns mainly technological modernization and financing of the professional apparatus, primarily the position of disability manager, who guarantees the quality of the integration process.
• Secondary fiscal savings: In this model, the state does not act as a direct donor of wage costs, but as an architect of the legislative environment that enables the entity to achieve economic self-sufficiency. This strategy generates significant indirect savings in public finances: expenditures on social benefits are eliminated, healthcare costs due to social rehabilitation are reduced, and in the case of integration of persons after serving a sentence, costs associated with recidivism are radically reduced.

Comparative View of Economic Models

Fiscal and Social Sustainability through Elimination of Systemic Dependencies

The Italian integration model exhibits a high degree of economic self-regeneration, as the successful work inclusion of an individual automatically triggers a process of de-clientelization of the social system. If, for example, a single parent obtains, through the managed intervention of a Disability/Diversity Manager, employment with optimized logistics and flexibility, an immediate reduction occurs in public expenditure on direct social transfers and assistance services.

However, this process goes beyond the framework of savings on the expenditure side of the budget: the increased purchasing power of the integrated individual stimulates local economic activity and strengthens the revenue side of the state through indirect taxes and contributions. The model thus abandons the strategy of passive poverty management (treating symptoms) and focuses on the systemic elimination of its structural causes. Vocational integration is transformed here into a tool of economic autonomy that reduces social risk and increases the fiscal stability of the state.

From Municipal Management to Professional Integration: A Paradigm Shift in Governance and Responsibility

Slovak application practice struggles with a fundamental misunderstanding of the economic and social nature of social economy entities. A reductive concept prevails of the social enterprise as a self-governing entity established by the local authority primarily for the purpose of saturating low-skilled work activities in the maintenance of public spaces. This model generates several critical risks:

• Low added value: Fixation on manual, auxiliary work (so-called maintenance activities) leads to stagnation and does not allow for the real development of the employee's professional skills, thereby blocking their later transitional ability to move to the open labour market.
• Political and economic vulnerability: The viability of the enterprise in this setup is directly determined by the political will of the local authority and its budget priorities, which precludes strategic investments in technology and innovation.
• Absence of market competition: Transforming the social enterprise into an internal supplier of the municipality eliminates the need for process efficiency. Unlike the Italian model, where the social enterprise must defend its position in a competitive environment, the Slovak municipal model often abandons economic sustainability and relies on continuous subsidization from public sources.

A paradigm shift therefore requires moving from perceiving the social enterprise as a "tool of municipal social care" to understanding it as an autonomous and professionally managed economic entity. It must be capable of diversifying its service portfolio and competing on quality of performance, thereby breaking the link between social inclusion and economic inefficiency.

Social Enterprise Model: Economic Entity, Not Administrative Unit

The Italian social enterprise operates on the principle of synergy between managerial know-how and collective participation. Unlike Slovak practice, the local authority here does not act in the role of founder or owner, but in the position of strategic partner and client.

• Founding structure (Socio): Consists of a group of professionals and managers who contribute their social capital, professional reputation, and financial resources to the entity. The social enterprise is thus conceived as an autonomous subject of economic competition, fully responsible for its economic results.
• Nature of the economic relationship: The entity participates in public procurement where, thanks to legislatively embedded social clauses, it gains a competitive advantage. This allows it to professionally and comprehensively manage regional contracts in areas such as municipal infrastructure management, environmental services, or logistics.

Comparison: Municipal Enterprise (SR) vs. Professional Cooperative (IT)

Self-Financing and Regional Expansion: From Grant Scheme to Bank Credibility

The Italian integration model is not built on continuous subsidy schemes, but on the principle of economic self-sufficiency. A key factor is the acquisition of long-term contracts in the public sector (e.g., four-year cycles of municipal infrastructure management), which represent relevant collateral and guarantees in the banking sector. This cash-flow stability enables social enterprises to access commercial financing, investment loans, and subsequent technological modernization.

• Mandatory reinvestment of profit: Under the legislative framework, entities are required to reinvest generated profit in the development of the production apparatus and the creation of new employment opportunities. This ensures continuous growth in process quality and the expansion of the enterprise's social impact.
• Transformation of social status: The result is not only an aesthetically cultivated public space, but above all the professionalization of the integration process. Employees become part of an established and prosperous economic entity, which fundamentally changes their social perception – from passive objects of a "social experiment" they become confident actors in the labour market, participating in real economic production.

Strategic Recommendations for Reforming Slovak Legislation

The comparative analysis points to the necessity of redefining the role of local authorities in the Slovak social economy system. The key challenge is the desegregation of competences: it is necessary to abandon the model in which a local authority representative is forced to act as the manager of an enterprise. The primary function of the local authority must remain strategic territorial administration, while economic and integration activities should be carried out by professional social enterprises. These act as expert service providers, guaranteeing the municipality not only quality of performance but also a systemic solution to social inclusion.

Inspiration from the current Italian reform of March 18, 2026 (Piano Nazionale Non Autosufficienza) confirms that the centre of the system must be the individual "Progetto di vita" (Personal Life Project). This approach replaces passive social care with a personalized plan for self-sufficiency and dignity. Slovak legislation could be inspired by this transition from "survival management" to a strategy of building the economic and social autonomy of the individual. This would rid social entrepreneurship of the stigma of a low-efficiency municipal tool and make it a modern pillar of state social policy.

Conclusion: From Administrative Formalism to Interdisciplinary Competence

The comparative analysis of the Slovak and Italian models of social entrepreneurship confirms that the effectiveness of work inclusion is not determined by the volume of allocated subsidies, but by systemic architecture. While the Slovak model (Act No. 112/2018 Coll.) remains limited by administrative formalism and sectoral fragmentation, Italian practice (Legge 68/99 and Legge 381/91) demonstrates the synergy of integrated expertise and market logic.

The critical point of Slovak inclusion policy is the absence of a comprehensive professional standard for the Disability & Diversity Manager (DDM). The current model of professional training exhibits considerable inconsistency of competences between the ministries of labour and education, generating only fragmented courses without methodological and conceptual unity. In sharp contrast stands the Italian model of postgraduate education (e.g., the ICOTEA institute under the auspices of MIUR), which through comprehensive Master programs (60 ECTS) guarantees interdisciplinarity – that is, a functional connection of law, the bio-psycho-social model, and corporate strategy.

For Slovakia to move from formally fulfilling quotas to real economic and social autonomy of disadvantaged persons, the implementation of three strategic pillars is essential:

1. Codification of the professional profile of the DDM as an expert function at the intersection of human resources, business processes, and social work.
2. Institutionalization of integrated educational programs with academic validity, to replace the current disparate forms of training.
3. Application of legislative incentives of the Articolo 14 type, which transform the sanction mechanism into a strategic partnership of the private sector and the social economy through real economic contracts.

Inspiration from the Italian model is not about uncritical reception of foreign legislation, but about understanding inclusion as an investment with a high rate of social return. Without systematic preparation of experts and a paradigm shift from a "municipal tool" to a "professional social enterprise," the social economy in Slovakia will remain only a temporary project dependent on external resources.

The current discussion in Italy (year 2026) on the full implementation of the reform (January 2027) and the warnings of several experts serve as a memento: even a massive financial allocation (EUR 3 billion) cannot replace the need to modernize evaluation mechanisms and change the mental framework. Legislation is only a tool; the real engine of change is the professionalization of services and their systemic sustainability.

Author: Mgr. Andrea Podešvová, MBA, LL.M.

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