Violence against women and its consequences for children

Introduction

Family and relationships within it form the most significant part of our lives and socialization. From our experience, relationships between spouses, partners, parents and other family members are by no means always loving and satisfying. Family violence can be a source of severe tension that brings its members to despair, depression, helplessness, fear and criminal proceedings. From our practice, it is clear that rising aggression in society is increasingly entering the awareness of the general public. The most vulnerable groups in family violence are women and children. That is why in this article we focus on violence against women, with special emphasis on children as indirect (subjective) victims. The goal is to point to children growing up in families where violence against women occurs. We consider it necessary to emphasize that these children are seriously endangered in physical, psychological and social aspects of their development. The current family situation is dangerous for them, as are the future negative effects of violence. Their further development and future adult relationships are at risk.

1 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Violence against women is a topic that has recently become the subject of many discussions not only worldwide but also in the Slovak Republic. Violence affects women of all ages, educational backgrounds, political and economic standings, social classes, ethnicities, cultures and religions. In this article, we will pay special attention to women—mothers and women whose child has been placed in substitute care. Our practice shows that this is a specific form of violence that requires sensitive and proper handling. Therefore, the focus of the paper will be on women on whom violence is committed and their children whose childhood has been taken away. Violence against women is a relatively recently studied phenomenon, and therefore there is significant inconsistency in its terminology. We follow the definition of the United Nations (1993), which characterizes violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion and intimidation or intentional restriction of freedom, in public and private life” (Heisse, 2000). Article 2 specifies this definition further: “physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, beating, sexual abuse of girls by household members, violence linked to jealousy, rape in marriage, mutilation of female genital organs, and other traditional practices harmful to women, as well as non-marital violence and violence connected with exploitation” (Heisse, 2000). Violence against women is closely associated and, in some expert circles, identified with the concept of domestic violence. This term generally refers to repeated and escalating violence of a physical, psychological or sexual nature between spouses or partners (Buskotte, 2008). The definition of domestic violence by the Circle of Security is: “domestic violence is physical, psychological or sexual violence between intimate partners, i.e., spouses, partners, etc., occurring in private and therefore outside public oversight. The intensity of violent incidents usually escalates and, for the victim, leads to a loss of the ability to stop violent incidents in time and effectively repair the damaged relationship” (www.bkb.cz). In our view, domestic violence is a broader concept because it also includes violence against children, men, seniors and disabled members of the household. Generally, distinctions are especially made in naming violence by:

• by location of the act: family violence, domestic violence,
• by the class of victims, considering family status and other specific characteristics: child abuse, partner violence, abuse of older adults, abuse of people with physical and/or psychological impairments,
• by the victim’s sex: violence against women, but also violence against men (Mátel, 2011, p. 221)

Figure 1. Violence against women as a subset of family violence

“The problem with using the term ‘violence against women’ is its broad meaning, because it can occur anywhere, not only in the domestic sphere” (Mátel, 2011, p. 224). For this paper, we focus on women who experienced violence in the home environment, for example as wives, partners, mothers, sisters, and grandmothers.

1.1. Signs of Violence Against Women

Whether a perpetrator’s behavior is violent or not is to some extent subjective and depends on the assessment of the person at risk. At the same time, it is necessary to realize that frequency and intensity of violent behavior by the aggressor also matter. There are signs that objectively attempt to determine whether this is violence:

• “repetition and duration – a single assault of any kind cannot determine that it is domestic violence; it can be the beginning of it.
• escalation – from insults it escalates to psychological degradation of human dignity and on to physical assaults and severe offenses threatening health and life.
• clear and non-debatable role differentiation between the person in danger and the violent person – domestic violence does not consist of mutual attacks, fights, disputes, where the roles of perpetrator and victim alternate.
• anonymity – it usually occurs behind closed doors of an apartment or house, away from public scrutiny.” (Buskotte, 2008, p. 40)

1.2. Forms of Violence Against Women

In professional circles, four basic forms of violence are discussed: physical, psychological (emotional), sexual and economic (financial), as well as emotional and social violence. (2008b)

Physical violence manifests in a broad range of attack intensity. “It includes all kinds of brutal acts, whose intensity escalates. From squeezing, kicking and beating, increasing aggression ends in beating with the intention of even killing. Physical violence is often connected with property destruction, especially of items important to the woman, and damage to furniture. As a consequence, women suffer health injuries and medical problems with varying degrees of threat to health and life. Such attacks often require medical treatment and hospitalization. Women rarely visit a doctor even when they have severe injuries” (Löw, 1998, p. 56). Because of its consequences, we consider this the most visible and most severe form of violence against women.

Psychological violence, sometimes also called psychological, emotional or affective violence, “includes emotional and verbal abuse; a woman experiences it as the destruction of her sense of self-worth and mental health. ‘Its presence is inferred from women’s subjective testimonies. It includes ridicule at home and in public, insulting remarks about appearance or personality, defamation, and outbursts of anger. Statements that the woman is crazy, mentally ill, paranoid, or suicidal are also used’” (Egger, 2000, p. 3). Although psychological violence is a frequent form of violence against women, some of its forms can be sophisticatedly transformed into socially acceptable and hard-to-recognize and punishable forms. Moreover, it leaves no obvious traces like physical violence. Even though it is difficult to prove in terms of consequences, it can have an even more devastating impact on the victim. It affects self-esteem, self-concept, self-confidence, and awareness of one’s own value most strongly. According to Ševčík, D. and Špatenková, N. (2011), psychological violence may take the form of:

• non-verbal – e.g., deliberately destroying favorite objects,
• verbal – includes verbal attacks, humiliation, insults, blaming, forbidding, threatening, emotional blackmail, constant surveillance. The victim’s mental state is often questioned.

Sexualized violence has consequences for psychological and physical health that sit between physical and psychological violence. (Egger, 2000) A woman suffers not only physically but mainly psychologically. Sexualized violence includes all sexual acts imposed on a woman. It is a serious act of aggression and abuse of power, not the result of uncontrollable sexual drives. (Matějková, 2009) It most commonly occurs between partners. In the case of sexual violence, it does not always mean satisfying a sexual urge; instead, it is an effective tool for humiliation, subjugation and domination of another person.

Social violence is “behavior aimed at isolating a woman. A strategy often used for manipulation and control of the victim. It takes multiple forms: preventing contact with family, friends and acquaintances, locking her at home, cutting off phone service, monitoring calls, prohibiting car use, absolute control of everything she does, and more” (Egger, 2000, p. 4).

Economic violence means inequality in access to financial resources and the use of a stronger economic position. “Misuse of power through control of financial means, refusal or minimization of financial support, preventing work or employment. A man forces the woman to leave her job and limits her own income” (Sopková, 1998, p. 103). The perpetrator provides too little money for household expenses or keeps income sources, assets or spending hidden from the victim. Victims of violence against women are rarely exposed to only one form of violence. (Húsková, 2014) All forms of violence against women usually share one common goal: to gain power and maintain full control over the woman. Violent individuals use countless tactics to achieve this goal. Psychological and especially economic and social violence are typical features of intergenerational and transgenerational violence.

2 CHILDREN AS INDIRECT VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Children raised in families where violence against women occurs are seriously at risk. The family situation is dangerous for them now, and so are the negative effects of violence on their later development and future adulthood relationships. According to Zbranková (2013), the personality of a parent is the most important model of desired child behavior. Parents are not only educators but also objects of socialization and should be able to set their own educational goals, thereby giving the child sufficient physical, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual support. If a child grows up in a family where violence is committed, it is always a negative model and a traumatizing experience.

Children may be direct and indirect (subjective) victims of violence. An indirect victim of domestic violence is, in our context, one who is present during violence against the mother, aunt, grandmother, sister, etc. “From earlier American studies, it follows that about 70% of cases of violence against women also involved children being exposed to physical violence. Although this may be a maximum, more recent studies confirm that 30–60% of children whose mothers were subjects of domestic violence were also mistreated. The American Psychological Association estimates that every year 3.3 million children are exposed to violence against their mothers. According to data from the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) on children as indirect victims of domestic violence, in many European countries children are present in at least half of all domestic violence cases and approximately three quarters of women seeking shelter in shelters have children with them” (Mátel, 2008). M. Rusnáková (2007) believes that modern society is more child-focused, and greater attention is now paid to questions of their mistreatment and protection from all forms of violence than before. The first international document concerning the legal status of children in society was the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1924). (Rusnáková, 2007) Subsequently, other documents were adopted to protect children, such as the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959), the Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in exceptional circumstances and armed conflicts, and so on, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). In Slovak law, child protection is embedded in the Constitution of the Slovak Republic, the Family Act, the Criminal Code, the Social Assistance Act, and others.

According to more recent studies, children who witness violence show almost the same emotional, psychological and somatic health problems as physically abused children. The EESC opinion also mentions several consequences of domestic violence on children:

• Children are helpless in the face of the father/partner of the mother, yet partly feel responsible for what is happening. They believe they are at fault for the violence.
• Older children try to protect their mother and themselves become victims of violence.
• They live in emotional strain: an atmosphere of constant threat, unpredictability of further escalation, existential fear for the mother, helplessness, and isolation due to orders to stay silent before others.
• They show behavioral disorders: psychosomatic symptoms; mental disorders such as reduced self-esteem, restlessness, sleep disturbances, school difficulties, fear, aggressive behavior and even suicidal thoughts.
• It may happen that children adopt dysfunctional adult behavior patterns. They learn to consider violence an acceptable form of conduct, develop disrespect toward women as normal, and view the linkage of love with violence as acceptable. There is a risk that boys may take on the role of perpetrator and girls the role of victim. Later, as adults, they may themselves become perpetrators and victims of domestic violence. Experts describe this as intergenerational transmission of violence. (Mátel, 2007)

We can conclude that children, whether direct or indirect victims of domestic violence, show almost identical symptoms to children with the CAN (Child Abuse and Neglect) syndrome. When multiple symptoms appear in a child and after speaking with their mother, the Department of Social and Legal Protection of Children and Social Guardianship (hereinafter OSODSK) should be alerted at the appropriate Labour Office for Social Affairs and Family Affairs. Once child endangerment through domestic violence is established, OSODSK must thoroughly investigate and assess the family situation and decide which measures to protect the child it will take.

If necessary, it may impose educational measures and submit to the relevant court a proposal for child protection. The most common are:

• a motion for interim measures adjusting child care, child support, or parental contact with the child;
• a proposal to order interim measures in cases where the child is without any care or where the child’s life and favorable development are endangered or disrupted;
• a proposal for placement of the child in an institution for children requiring immediate help;
• a proposal for institution-based care;
• a proposal to restrict or terminate parental responsibility, or to suspend its exercise.

From our experience, this is highly complex and must be assessed carefully with experts and with ongoing attention to the child’s needs and interests.

CONCLUSION

Given the seriousness of the issue, it requires special attention. Protecting the interests and needs of children should be a priority for OSODSK. From our findings it follows that this involves highly complex dynamics that must be addressed with professional participation. In cases of violence against women in families where children grow up, interprofessional cooperation is needed, based on mutual coordination and information exchange between involved institutions, especially OSODSK, the Slovak Police Force, the courts, educational institutions and healthcare organizations. Measures by the Slovak Police Force that could improve the situation of women suffering abuse and their children may include:

• Create a specialized team for dealing with violence against women This solution has proven successful in many other countries (for example, the Czech Republic, Poland, Norway) and means that police have patrols and investigators specially trained and sensitized to gender-based violence against women and its various forms. A specialized team would help address situations in which the effectiveness and intervention of the PZ were not sufficiently effective or professional. The team would be under the authority of the district police directorate (OR) of the Criminal Police Department of the PZ and would consist of investigators, advisers with local and regional responsibility, and a prevention team specialist officer. The number of team members would depend on the size of the service area of each OR PZ.
• Ensure education on the issue of violence against women Specific training on violence against women was carried out in the PZ six years ago. Given high staff turnover in the PZ, police officers need continuous education on this issue. When designing educational programs, we recommend cooperation with specialized NGOs, the Institute for Research on Work and Family Bratislava, and Koordinačno – the methodological center for gender-based and domestic violence.

Author: kpt. PhDr. Ludmila Húsková, PhD. District Directorate of the Slovak Police Force Martin

List of bibliographic references

BUSKOTTE, A. 2008. Z pekla ven. Žena v domácom násilí. 1. vyd. Brno: Computer Press, 2008. 176 s. ISBN 978-80-251-1786-6. HEISE, L. et al. 2000. Násilie páchané na ženách. Bratislava: Aspekt, 2000. 64s. ISBN 80-8032-476-5 EGGER, R. 2000. Konať proti násiliu na ženách. Košice: Pro Familia a Aspekt, 2000. 17 s. ISBN 80-967964-2-9. HÚSKOVÁ, Ľ. 2014. Mental consequences of violence against women. In. Drive your Knowledge be a scientist. Tomas Bata University in Zlin. 2014. s. 730. ZLÍN. ISBN 978-80-7454-339-5 ŠEVČÍK,D. – ŠPATENKOVÁ,N. a kol.: Domácií násilí. Praha. Portál. 2011. s. 192, ISBN 978-80-7367-690-2 LÖW, S. 1998. Konať proti násiliu na ženách. Bratislava: Aspekt, 1998. 170 s. MATĚJKOVÁ, E. 2009. Řešíme partnerské problémy. Praha: Grada Publishing, 2009. 144 s. ISBN 978-80-247-2338-9 SOPKOVÁ, E. 1998. Situácia žien - obetí domáceho násilia. Bratislava: Aspekt, 1998. 198 s. MÁTEL, A. – SCHAVEL, M. a kol.: Aplikovaná sociálna patológia v sociálnej práci. Bratislava: VŠ ZaSP sv. Alžbety, 2011. s. 442, ISBN 978-80-8132-009-5 MÁTEL, A. 2008. Deti ako nepriame obete násilia voči ženám. In Sme blog, Petit Press, 2008 RUSNÁKOVÁ, M. 2007. Rodina v slovenskej spoločnosti v kontexte sociálnej práce. 1. vyd. Ružomberok: 2007. 167 s. ISBN 978-80-8084-248-2 TOKOVSKÁ, M. 2013. Úlohy sociálnej práce v kontexte problémov zlého zaobchádzania so seniormi. In Násilie v sociálnej práci. Ed. S. Lovašová, et al. Košice: Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika v Košiciach, 2013, s. 102-117. www.bkb.cz, 23.11.2020