Introduction
Social media influence the adolescent's personality. Because the literature does not provide a unified definition of the current generation, its naming and age boundaries (see generation Z, post-millennials, i-generation, digital natives), we use the term screenager to designate adolescents, which—in our view—reliably characterizes the current generation. The digital era, the COVID-19 pandemic with distance education, the war conflict, and other social and economic effects affected every person in 21st-century society. A particularly vulnerable group is screenagers, who spend even more time using social media (social networks—Facebook, Twitter, Pokec, as well as photo- and video-posting sites—Instagram, YouTube, etc.), where they not only learn various information but are also confronted with other users, friends, peers, and followers of their profiles and statuses. Communication via social networks can be enriching on the one hand, while on the other it may, due to multiple factors, challenge an adolescent’s self-concept and self-image, leading to reduced self-confidence and self-esteem. The purpose of this paper is to present the influence of social media on the self-concept and self-esteem of screenagers and to present the proposed CYBER preventive methodology focused on preventing cyberaggression, including, among other things, strengthening self-esteem among screenagers.
Social media and their influence on screenager self-concept and self-esteem
Today’s children and adolescents live in two worlds simultaneously: real offline reality and for them the immediate online world. Because of the frequency with which they coexist in cyberspace and use social media, there is experimentation with one’s own identity. One component of personality development is self-concept, which can be understood as self-perception formed under the influence of people, one’s own behavioral attributes, and reinforcement from the environment (Chen, Garcia, Fuentes, et al. 2020). Self-concept plays an important role in healthy adolescent development and is influenced by and influences social behavior and interpersonal relationships during childhood and adolescence (Fanti, Henrich 2014). During the shaping of self-concept, self-image, and identity, screenagers are vulnerable both to greater self-awareness, which is related to self-esteem, and to yielding to the influence of peers and media, especially the internet (Sebastian, Burnett & Blakemore, 2008). At present, the concept of self-concept is determined by the influence of social media. Their use has changed the possibilities of self-presentation in the digital environment. The expansion of digital media and the creation of online profiles on social networks have allowed adolescents to experiment even more with their identity and different aspects of their “self.” Screenagers spend time on social networks updating their profiles and publishing posts. They present their identity through photos, experiences, interests, and so on. At the same time they browse peers’ profiles and photos, which leads to ongoing comparison. Others become their followers, influencing (consciously or unconsciously) an individual’s self-perception.
In the context of social media, the following may occur:
- Comments and ratings (likes) can signal feedback indicators, making social media measures of popularity or unpopularity, liking/disliking, acceptance/rejection, and so forth. Adolescents thereby receive positive or negative evaluation. While positive feedback strengthens self-image and self-esteem, negative feedback lowers them and may signal ridicule, humiliation, or rejection of the individual, which may again be connected to cyberaggression, possibly even cyberbullying. If social stigma occurs—discrimination of an individual based on culture, relationship, nationality, traits, as well as expressed opinions in the online environment—adolescents’ self-concept and social identity change (Macionis, Gerber, 2010).
- Others’ profiles can be used as a means for comparison, as referred to by Festinger’s theory of social comparison. According to the theory, this is the comparison of one’s own abilities, skills, and sense of self with others in order to form a judgment about oneself, thereby shaping self-concept. The theory also categorizes three types of social comparison:
- upward social comparison is carried out with people one believes to be in some way better; this comparison generates feelings of inferiority and withdrawal;
- downward social comparison occurs when comparing oneself to people in a worse situation, generating feelings of self-confidence;
- lateral social comparison occurs with someone considered “equal” across various domains.
As a result, depending on the comparison that occurs, an adolescent may feel irritated, frustrated, inferior, or, conversely, may experience increased self-confidence and self-esteem. Screenagers who engage in upward comparison within social media may have lower self-confidence and self-esteem, for example, when viewing profiles where peers post about healthy eating habits, sports activities, achievements, and entertaining social events. Conversely, when viewing peers’ profiles with fewer friends and achievements (downward comparison), their self-esteem and confidence increase (Valkenburg, et al. 2021).
Selected studies on self-esteem and cyberaggression
Identity construction in online environments allows responses to those aspects of self-image that can clarify or challenge adolescents’ views of who they are, what they are like, and how they are perceived by others. Negative interactions in the digital environment can significantly impact self-image as well as levels of self-esteem and self-confidence of adolescents. These psychosocial variables may correlate with the occurrence of cyberaggression, cyberbullying, and cyber-victimization, as shown in research by Brewer and Kerslake (2015), who warned that self-esteem was a significant individual predictor of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration, with adolescents aged 16–18 with low self-esteem reporting cyberbullying experiences. Wendt, Appel-Silva et al. (2018) later conducted research on a sample of 454 Brazilian adolescents, showing that cyber aggression and victimization are associated with depression, and that cyberaggression was significantly correlated with low self-esteem among adolescents.
A meta-analysis by Lei, Mao, Cheong et al. (2019) identified through 61 articles with 49,406 respondents a strong correlation between self-esteem and cyberbullying. It also showed that this relationship is moderated by factors such as sample size, respondent age, and cultural specificities. The correlation between self-esteem and cyberbullying was stronger in studies using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and weaker in studies that used other research tools. Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. (2020) also found (N = 24,943; Spain = 14,206 and Ecuador = 10,737; mean age = 13.92; SD = 1.30; girls = 49.9%) that cybervictimization is linked to low self-esteem, self-deprecation, insufficient communication and relationship skills, as well as low assertiveness and inability to resolve conflicts. Low self-esteem can produce an unrealistic idealized image of the self and can trigger online threats, as the virtual environment is part of children’s and adolescents’ lives.
Although we refer only to selected foreign studies, it is clear that the issue of cyber aggression in relation to self-esteem has been studied in depth abroad for a long time. In Slovakia, authors Valihorová, Holáková, and Milánová (2017) studied, on a sample of 183 high school students (mean age 16.6 years), the relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying among adolescents. It was shown that self-esteem (in home, school, and peer self) was an individual predictor of involvement in cyberbullying in the victim role, and school self-esteem was a predictor of a student’s involvement in cyberbullying as aggressor. Those with low self-esteem participated more often in cyberbullying. In more recent research by Zošáková (2022), under the supervision of prof. Niklová, it was demonstrated (N = 693 students, 414 girls and 223 boys, mean age = 16.63 years) that in terms of gender, contemporary screenagers have lower self-esteem than screenager girls. The study did not confirm a correlation between Instagram use and respondents’ self-esteem, but this was not examined from a gender perspective.
CYBER methodology as prevention of cyberaggression
Research findings have significant implications for pedagogical-psychological and socio-pedagogical theory and practice, including the design of cyberaggression prevention. On the basis of the theoretical and empirical platform of the examined issue, we propose that in preventing cyberaggression in socio-educational, special pedagogical, and psychological practice one should support social-emotional education in order to: eliminate negative self-assessment, stimulate the development of affective and cognitive empathy, encourage assertive behavior and conflict-solving skills. We translated these aims into a preventive strategy/methodology based on the acronym CYBER, which—like Zelina’s (2011) creative-humanistic model of education—is an inspiration for new educational perspectives. The theoretical foundation of the CYBER model/system is respect for noncognitive functions and strategies:
- C (ang. cognitive) cognitiveization
- Y (ang. You, yourself) self-concept, self-image, and self-esteem
- B (ang. Behaviour) behavior and communication
- E (ang. Emotion) emotionalization
- R (ang. Resilence) resilience, which we then developed into goals:
C
(ang. cognitive) cognitiveization – to teach the individual to perceive, think, resolve conflicts, develop critical thinking, distinguish fact from fiction, identify manipulative techniques in the cyber environment, recognize online traps and their risks and consequences, learn to defend against online traps, and know how to search for and select information.
Y
(ang. You, yourself) self-concept, self-image, and self-esteem – the goal is to teach a child and adolescent to form and shape a positive self-image, to distinguish between positive and negative self-image, to value oneself (i.e., recognize and realize one’s own worth—accept oneself as one is), to take responsibility for developing one’s own talents and learn to develop one’s talents, to become aware of “who I am,” “what I am,” and “how I accept myself,” and to understand one’s own thoughts and feelings.
B
(ang. Behaviour) behavior and communication – to teach the individual to develop prosocial behavior, as well as skills for cooperation and communication with others; to develop the ability to help and create progressive interpersonal relationships; to develop social-emotional skills; and to know how to resolve conflicts constructively and creatively.
E
(ang. Emotive) emotionalization – the goal is to teach the individual to develop emotions, communicate feelings, regulate negative emotions and experiences, and develop empathy, including affective and cognitive empathy.
R
(ang. Resilence) resilience – the aim is to develop in children and adolescents the ability to overcome obstacles, effectively resolve conflicts in real and online environments, develop stress-coping strategies, build respect for oneself and others, interpret obstacles as opportunities for learning and growth, and teach individuals to understand themselves.
Conclusion
The methodology is part of the KEGA project (e-)Prevention of cyberaggression among Generation Z, which, once finalized, will serve as a tool for primary prevention of cyberaggression for pedagogical and professional staff in schools and school institutions. A priori, the methodology will be intended for social pedagogues, school psychologists, special pedagogues, as well as caregivers and teachers in their socio-educational work with children and students. We propose that strengthening screenagers’ self-esteem, self-image, and self-identity will positively affect their social-emotional skills, in developing relational competencies, as well as the ability to overcome obstacles and to see them as opportunities for self-realization and personal development. A prerequisite for developing self-esteem, self-image, and self-concept is, on the one hand, cooperation among helping professions, including the supporting school team, and, on the other, the long-term implementation of activities stimulating positive aspects of screenager personality across cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Authors: doc. PaedDr. Katarína Hollá, PhD. Mgr. Kristína Bielčiková Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre Katedra pedagogiky PF
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