Prevention of Violence Against Women

Introduction

Violence against women is a highly widespread and at the same time least controlled form of violence. Violence against women should not be a private matter affecting only victims and perpetrators but should be an issue for the entire society. Prevention in the context of violence against women is a major and indispensable component. The question remains: "How can we prevent violence against women?" In connection with this question, one might say: how can one prevent an invisible, unclear phenomenon, or threat? For this reason, we consider research in this area and the clear and understandable interpretation of its results to be important. We can increase our society’s sensitivity to this phenomenon by informing the general public about the specific nature of this violence (for example, by raising awareness of warning signs, characteristics of a risky partner, the cycle of violence, protection options, available support, and so on). It can be divided into three types: primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. All these types are closely interlinked.

Primary prevention

Primary prevention should focus on eliminating the risks of likely onset of violence against women. Its goal is to achieve "zero tolerance". (Mátel, 2011) Primary prevention is any activity aimed at measures that prevent violence from occurring. It is oriented to the whole society and plays a key role in preventing the occurrence of this phenomenon. It concerns not only domestic violence but also women’s position in society, the promotion of equal opportunities for men and women, changes in social policy, and the like. Important measures in primary prevention include raising awareness and sensitivity to this issue, measures leading to the removal and elimination of gender stereotypes, and discrediting the myths that surround violence against women. Public education is a core preventive strategy. Public education campaigns can act directly and indirectly in violence prevention. They may address domestic violence specifically or focus on related issues of equality and human rights. Education campaigns for the public often begin by describing the problem, and may define the types of behavior included in the definition of domestic violence, provide information about its extent and prevalence, and about its short- and long-term consequences. They can also encourage individuals and groups to obtain further information, to recognize available services, and to take part in community efforts to confront and solve the problem. At the same time, they provide information on how to live without violence, focusing on alternative forms of behavior, including nonviolent problem solving and conflict-resolution strategies. They may target the victim, children, offender, other family members, or the whole society. To transmit the message, campaigns can use a full range of methods, which should differ depending on the target audience and available resources.

Questions concerning violence against women in Slovakia entered public discussion largely thanks to non-governmental organizations, which played a decisive role not only in breaking the taboo around this issue but also in providing direct assistance to women suffering from violence, in educational activities, and in advocating legal changes. NGOs are characterized by heightened activity in drafting and promoting legislation and strategies related to violence against women, as well as to broader issues of equal opportunity in society.

At first, NGO activity was largely focused on domestic violence against women (that is, within family and intimate relationships), and only later did questions of public violence begin to be addressed (for example, trafficking in women, prostitution, violence against women from ethnic or other minorities, or violence against migrant women—organizations active in this area include, for example, Aliancia žien Slovenska, Únia centier prevencie a pomoci – Dafné, Avelana, and the civic association Pomoc obetiam násilia, among others).

Gender-sensitive education and pedagogy

The foundational framework of gender-sensitive education and pedagogy is human rights and their guarantees. With regard to removing the root cause of gender-based violence—gender inequality—the key task is to eliminate gender stereotypes from education and teaching and to promote a gender-sensitive approach in work with children and young people (Bosá, 2005). Gender-sensitive education and pedagogy is an educational approach based on the principle of equal opportunity for boys and girls. It seeks to create equal starting conditions in upbringing and education for children and to offer them a learning space not constrained by traditional gender stereotypes (traditional feminine and masculine roles, patterns, and models of behaviour). In gender-sensitive education, "teachers are expected to apply an individual approach to children and young people that is not influenced by biases toward boys and girls. Such an approach can be applied only by those teachers who can identify and reflect on gender stereotypes and their consequences. Gender-sensitive education is still more of an isolated phenomenon than a common practice in Slovak schools. For truly consistent gender-sensitive pedagogical work, it is not enough to simply avoid spreading and reinforcing gender stereotypes. It is necessary to help children become aware of them and to offer alternative models of masculinity and femininity. Children should be shown that men and women have much more similar than different characteristics" (Bútorová, Filadelfiová, 2005, pp. 86–87).

We believe that gender-sensitive education should support children in their individual potential and develop their abilities also in areas not traditionally considered part of their gender. This approach enables the full development of girls and boys and decisively rejects gender stereotypes and gender-based prejudice. This requires, above all, further education and self-education in gender issues not only from teachers but also from other staff (for example, educational counselors). In teaching, it is then necessary to sensitively acknowledge gender differences and specificities of boys and girls, while being aware of one's own gender-stereotyped actions and thinking. Gender-sensitive and gender-correct textbooks should allow equal formation of both sexes. No forms of gender superiority should appear in them. A significant role is played by addressing gender-based violence and its causes in work with children and young people. "This form of prevention of gender-based violence is crucial in relation to violence against women. In such work, it is necessary to recall the real causes of violence and reject both these causes and violence itself. If violence is not suppressed or repudiated, this experience can become for children and young people a signal that violence against women or girls is a "normal" part of social life and of relationships between women and men" (2005b). These situations can lead to perceiving violence as a normal way of exercising power.

Secondary prevention

Secondary prevention means creating conditions for the provision of effective help to women who have experienced or are experiencing violence. It can also contribute to early recognition and termination of violence in a partner relationship. As Mátel, A. (2011) states, victims’ information needs generally fall into three categories:

• general information about the justice system and women’s rights,
• information about what is happening in one’s own case,
• information about similar and other services (crisis accommodation, social help, counseling, etc.).

It is necessary, we consider, that information be available in many public locations because many women have no possibility of contacting crisis centers or other helping organizations. The role of workers in helping professions at the secondary prevention level lies in early diagnosis of this phenomenon and in effective intervention. They can work in a range of programs and institutions:

• "in crisis interventions, where urgency of immediate response is central,
• in counseling, where people need to orient themselves in the ongoing situation and choose an appropriate solution,
• in training, where the involved persons (threatened or violent) need to learn new ways of behavior and coping with the situation,
• in therapy, where there is a need for and demand of targeted change,
• in accompaniment, when the current situation has no acceptable solution" (Ševčík, Špatenková, 2011, p. 153).

Secondary prevention may take the form of crisis intervention, counseling, or direct therapy provided to perpetrators of violence, as well as other people affected by violence.

Couple therapy

At present, in the field of treatment of partner violence around the world, a gender-specific approach predominates, which works with the victim and the perpetrator individually. Alongside it, there is couple therapy, which works with both actors in the violent relationship together. The key difference between these approaches lies in to whom responsibility for violence in the relationship is attributed. According to the gender-specific approach, responsibility for violence rests with the perpetrator. Therefore, the primary goals of this approach are the perpetrator’s assumption of responsibility for his violent behavior and working with victim-blaming guilt feelings. Couple therapy addresses interactional aspects of conflict in the relationship, and its goal is to improve mutual communication. The suitability and effectiveness of couple or family therapy in cases of domestic violence generates substantial debate among experts. There are many reasons why victims or perpetrators initially do not openly acknowledge the presence of violence in the relationship. For example, "it may be due to the victim’s fear and embarrassment, as the victim feels responsible for the violence, or because some couples do not perceive violence as the main problem since it is not always present; among these reasons is also the victim’s fear of the perpetrator’s reaction to publicly declaring the problem, as well as dynamics of the violent relationship, where both perpetrator and often the victim minimize and trivialize violent incidents and their consequences" (Marvanová–Vargová, 2008, p. 66).

To decide whether couple therapy is an appropriate method, it is necessary to specifically determine whether violence is present in the relationship. Couple therapy should not be court-mandated or recommended in cases where possible identification of violence has not occurred, or where couple therapy would endanger the victim’s safety or create a risk of secondary victimization. "Couple or family therapy is not appropriate mainly in cases when:

• the perpetrator refuses to stop violent behavior,
• the perpetrator refuses to take responsibility for the violence committed,
• the perpetrator minimizes the consequences of his violent behavior,
• there is a risk of repeated violence,
• the victim fears the violent partner,
• the violent partner continues to threaten,
• victims are being stalked with the aim of retaining control and power,
• one of the parties shows disinterest or dissatisfaction with couple therapy" (2008b).

It is clear that couple therapy can be carried out only in cases where violence has not lasted too long and its severity is not too high. It is appropriate when the man wants to but cannot control his behavior without outside support, and when the victim’s position is sufficiently strong. In therapy, the perpetrator must learn to accept not only responsibility for his violent behavior but also that his behavior is inexcusable. Both partners then jointly learn how to recognize signs of violent behavior and redirect the situation in time. Clients in therapy also change mutual partner expectations, relationships, and communication patterns.

Partner violence and mediation

Alternative conflict-resolution mechanisms can be a source of flexible solutions to acute problems, but in cases of violence against women—where imbalance of power between perpetrator and victim is common—attempts at mediation can be problematic. "Critics of mediation-based approaches consider it unsuitable for domestic violence cases for the following reasons:

• using mediation instead of criminal-legal proceedings creates the impression that domestic violence is not a crime or is less serious than other violent crimes,
• the mediation process does not ensure that the perpetrator takes responsibility for the violence committed (and the victim risks being exposed to violence again),
• mediation may require changing victims’ behavior, which can create the impression that victims are responsible for the violence and thus for stopping the man’s violent conduct,
• the implied equality between victim and perpetrator is inadequate, because the essence of the act is the unequal treatment of the victim; in such cases victims may be prevented from defending themselves,
• mediation cannot establish the facts of the case,
• mediation is not always discreet, and information disclosed there may be used in court proceedings,
• the police cannot monitor compliance with mediated agreements" (Čírtková, 2007).

In our view, mediation may be most useful only in cases where no further violence occurs, or when the victim’s injuries are minimal and the accused accepts responsibility for violent behavior. In such situations, mediation can contribute to healing the partner relationship. In the Slovak Republic, the use of mediation in the field of violence against women is not widespread. We believe mediation is suitable for resolving less demanding conflicts between partners. It should not be used for a complex issue such as violence against women, since in many cases this involves multiple criminal offenses, for example abuse of a close person and spouse, criminal threats, bodily harm, stalking, rape—offenses that mediation cannot adequately cover.

Tertiary prevention

Tertiary prevention aims to alleviate the adverse impacts of violence against women. In the case of tertiary prevention, it is an attempt to prevent re-victimization or to mitigate the consequences of violence already committed. (Ševčík, Špatenková, 2011) Tertiary prevention also aims at changing violent behavior and protecting the victim from further victimization. It includes reintegration, social rehabilitation, re-education, resocialization activities, and social measures: comprehensive care for persons affected by domestic violence, including housing, social services, social benefits, and so on.

Group psychotherapy for women—victims of partner violence

This is an appropriate method that allows the victim to gain insight into her situation, share feelings with other women facing similar problems, and learn more adaptive ways of responding. "It is necessary to respect that women who lived for a long time in dependence on an aggressive partner have a hard time adapting to a new situation and struggle to learn independence. Therapeutic guidance is therefore also focused on strengthening self-confidence" (Vágnerová, 2004, p. 647). The main goal of these long-term psychotherapeutic sessions is "to help the victim return to a full life, to adopt suitable ways of communication, behavior, and responding, to cope with and express emotions, and to resolve family conflicts" (2004b). When a victim understands the dynamics of the violent relationship in which she lived, she can also develop defensive strategies against further violence. Her ability to live independently and fully must also be strengthened. The victim must be convinced that the violence that occurred in her relationship with her partner is not her fault.

Therapeutic programs for perpetrators of domestic violence

In addressing domestic violence, punishment of the aggressor is not enough; prevention of recurring violent conduct is necessary. Different types of violent men respond differently to various anti-violence measures. For some groups, short-term expulsion from the shared household and a restraining order may be sufficient. Other types of perpetrators respond well to court-ordered anti-aggressive re-education programs, while others respond to formal court supervision. Therapeutic programs for perpetrators of violence against women focus on self-awareness and self-control. Perpetrators learn to distinguish thoughts and feelings they experience in the moments leading up to violence, allowing them to leave the situation before they become violent. Other programs teach perpetrators skills in areas such as conflict resolution, nonviolent problem solving, assertiveness training, coping strategies and relaxation, and anger management (Čírtková, 2007). Perpetrators motivated to change their attitudes and behavior are generally more successful in therapy than those who attend therapeutic programs only to avoid criminal prosecution or imprisonment. A significant role is also played by self-help groups of violent men, which support the perpetrator in taking responsibility for his violent acts. These groups can provide long-term support to perpetrators and their families after formal therapeutic programs end. It can be stated that, in the interest of protecting victims and potential future families of perpetrators, the possibility of therapy for perpetrators of violence against women is highly important.

Conclusion

We believe that the aim of prevention and intervention is not primarily to prosecute and punish the violent person, but to appropriately eliminate violence through external intervention. Prevention as intervention should reflect three key points: awareness, victim protection, and confronting the perpetrator with an official response based primarily on non-tolerance of domestic violence. We can state that these points can be fully applied also to prevention guaranteed by the state in the Slovak Republic.

Author: PhDr. Ľudmila Húsková, PhD.

References

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