In contemporary society, we are constantly confronted with globalization, trying to understand its effects (both positive and negative) and then respond to them thoughtfully. It is important to recognize that through the linking of economies and the emergence of various transnational communities, people are becoming a kind of global citizen, and thus the concept of citizenship is changing. Therefore, the notion of global citizenship, the global citizen, is increasingly entering public consciousness. Citizenship involves greater responsibility, and territory does not play such an important role, particularly in the political and civic domain of citizenship (Jarvis, 2004). Jarvis further continues defining citizenship and argues that there is a fundamental difference between citizenship and active citizenship (at both national and global levels). The former is rather a legal delimitation, while in the latter we talk about practicing responsibility.
Today's society is also referred to as civic society, whose development and support belong among the basic topics at both national and international levels. Civic society can be simply explained as the whole characterized by the cooperation of three domains—citizens, state institutions, and civic institutions (Macháček – Šťava, 2012), and simultaneously represents the values of civic freedom and democratic pluralism (Korim, 2012). Ondrušek, Miková, Zelenáková, and Woleková (2012, p.11) describe a model of civil society, “one that includes the state sector as well as the private business sector and the non-profit organization sector.” They also emphasize that such a model can function only if the sectors mutually cooperate and complement one another. Such civic society has its roots in political liberalism, which represents relationships among people who are fully active participants in society and are directly or indirectly connected throughout life (Rawls, 1993). The field of education is considered significant in relation to the development and support of civic society, as well as in relation to globalization.
Characteristics of Key Concepts
Before focusing on specific types of education, we consider it important, in the context of our study, to also pay attention to adult education itself. Adult education (andragogy) is a science of adult upbringing that deals with intentional socialization of the adult and with helping adults through andragogical means in all areas of their lives (Prusáková, 2005). We can therefore say that adult education represents upbringing, education, and counselling for an adult in a difficult and complex life situation. Therefore, the object of adult education is the adult individual, and its subject is the andragogical educational reality (Veteška, 2016). Veteška (2009, 2010) further defines adult education as an educational reality of adults that includes the theoretical, methodological, and practical dimensions of adult education. These stages must be understood holistically, so we cannot speak only about intentional learning; we need to think in the context of lifelong learning.
In addition to the above, we can state that adult education can help change lives and transform societies (EAEA, 2016). At the same time, it is important to note that adult education is a key tool for addressing some of the challenges that today face not only Europe but also the world. In this context, adult education can help address inequalities between people, combat xenophobia, radicalization, unemployment, support digitization, and support the acquisition of new skills, among others. Adult education is also often linked with some Sustainable Development Goals (Benavot, 2018). Adult education therefore contains a positive answer to many problems of the modern world (EAEA, 2016) and at the same time represents benefits for both the individual and society as a whole. Benavot (2018) describes several arguments for why adult education should be supported and developed. One of them is that adults must increasingly cope with various changes and, in light of an ever-aging population, they need to continuously acquire new skills and competencies. Civic and global education can serve exactly this purpose.
Civic education, as part of the lifelong learning concept, represents one of the basic forms and opportunities to acquire key competencies. Dvořáková and Šerák (2016, p. 116) characterize civic education as “all educational activities focused on shaping awareness of the rights and responsibilities of persons in their civic, political, social, and family roles and how these roles can be fulfilled responsibly and effectively.” Civic education has a clearly formulated goal: the formation of an active citizen. However, we also find formulations of partial goals, most frequently identified in four areas:
- developing political literacy;
- gaining critical thinking and analytical skills;
- developing values, attitudes, and behavior;
- supporting active participation and commitments in the community (EACEA, 2012).
One of the partial goals of civic education can also be considered the acquisition of civic competencies. In this context, it is important to also pay attention to the concept of active citizenship. This concept represents the knowledge, skills, and attitudes an individual can use when participating in public life (Veteška, 2016). It is also the capacity of an individual to move beyond the cognitive dimension of learning and actively apply their skills, or acquire new ones at various levels within the educational environment (institutions, local communities, etc.) (O´Shea, 2012). Thus, active citizenship, in addition to knowledge acquisition, also includes attitudes and skills. These skills then result in participation in civic society, community life, and political life, and are characterized by mutual respect and non-violence, implemented in line with the principles of human rights and democracy (Hoskins and Kerr, 2012).
Based on the above, we can identify both the traits and specifics of civic education as well as the specifics of active citizenship. Likewise, we can formulate a definition of civic education, which can be characterized as “education, activities and actions that support the development of civic competencies, active participation within the community and society, political literacy, and at the same time activities that help young and adult people gain values and adopt positions on current political and social issues” (Sládkayová, 2019, p. 12).
In this context, we agree with Kopecký (2010, pp. 142–143), who identifies six attributes typical of adult civic education:
- voluntariness;
- pluralism;
- openness;
- relatively high resistance to institutionalization;
- orientation toward action.
In addition to the basic characteristics of adult civic education, we also know its basic principles. These principles were adopted in 1976 at the Beustelsbach conference (Protivinský – Dokutilová – Čáp, 2013). The accepted principles of adult civic education are often also called the Beustelsbach Consensus. The first principle is non-indoktrinative civic education, meaning that civic education should not manipulate individuals; rather, it should support the learner in forming their own judgment. The second principle is balance, meaning that civic education must not simplify and conceal controversial issues that are subject to social, political, or scientific debate. The final principle is the support of independent thinking, where civic education develops the ability to analyze societal and political situations from one’s own standpoint (Schiele – Schneider, 1977 in Protivinský – Dokutilová – Čáp, 2013, p. 25). Adherence to these principles creates a boundary between civic education and manipulation or propaganda through education.
As noted above, contemporary society does not allow us to remain only at a local or national level. People are becoming global citizens, and therefore it is important to pay attention to global themes, problems, and challenges that a globalized world brings. This need is met especially in global education. Global education opens people’s eyes and minds to the realities around us and encourages them to bring more justice, equality, and human rights for everyone into the world (Maastrich Global Education Declaration, 2002). Sobotová (2012), given the dynamically changing world, describes this type of education as a lifelong process. It represents a tool that prepares a person for life. The goal is not to teach people what to think and how to act, or to teach them critical thinking, but to lead them toward activity and responsibility. Petrasová (2019) states that global education is an independent educational approach based on the mutual interconnection of societies, countries, and people, on the interconnectedness of social, cultural, and natural phenomena, linking past, present, and future while realizing the complexity of cognitive, affective, physical, and spiritual dimensions of human existence. Global education also raises questions of development, equality, peace, social and environmental justice. By supporting independent, autonomous, critical thinking, global education seeks to help develop practical skills and contribute to positive changes at both local and global levels.
The term global education has become popular especially in the last decade and draws attention to the context of globalization and increasing interdependence and interconnection in today’s complex world (Krause, 2011). This fact underscores the reality that today we speak of many issues and questions only as part of development.
Among the notable features of this education are:
- global dimension – understanding the phenomena around us is possible only from a global perspective. It perceives similarities and differences among people, societies, economies, and natural conditions in different parts of the world. It identifies phenomena that affect everyone and can take different forms in every country (poverty, justice, inequality, peace, conflict, negative environmental changes, etc.). It promotes a sense of social responsibility and solidarity, understanding of global processes, and awareness of the impact of individual actions on society and the world (consumer behaviour, production processes, etc.);
- modern pedagogical trends – it uses active and participatory methods to develop individual creativity in education, stimulates people to discover and investigate phenomena, and to critically reassess their own attitudes, prejudices, and behaviour;
- pursuit of personal and societal change (the so-called transformative dimension) – it promotes an individual’s capacities, abilities, and motivation, enabling them to respond to changes and advocate these changes for the benefit of personal and collective human development. It contributes to fundamental change at the level of the individual, the education system, the entire society, and the planet;
- holistic approach – different concepts (development, environment, sustainability, human rights and justice, peace, multiculturality, multiperspectivity) complement one another and are interconnected. This corresponds to a holistic view of the world, humankind, and its challenges; in other words, it is not possible to separate individual challenges and analyze them in different closed parts (Miléřová, 2015).
Besides global education, Krause (2011) describes three additional concepts: development education, education for sustainable development, and education for global citizenship. Given the nature of our study, we will further use only the term adult civic education as an umbrella concept, also because civic and global education have many common features and overlap in many content areas.
Within individual definitions and characterization of goals and features of these forms of adult education, we also meet phenomena that can be collectively called socio-pathological phenomena. We can consider socio-pathological phenomena as undesirable social phenomena that deviate from generally valid social norms based on so-called social normality. These can include negatively sanctionable forms of deviant behavior (e.g., crime, manifestations of radicalization, racism, and extremism), as well as undesired social phenomena (e.g., homelessness, unemployment, poverty, etc.) (see also Hroncová and colleagues, 2016; Határ, 2012).
We may state, based on the above, that these phenomena can be addressed at least in part through adult education. Specifically, we refer to adult civic education, which can be considered one of the tools for contributing to the prevention and elimination of socio-pathological phenomena in society. In addition to the fact that adult civic education is closely linked with interest-based education, its intersections can also be found in social andragogy, that is, social work with adults, through which we can realize the above-mentioned prevention and elimination of socio-pathological phenomena.
Prevention and Elimination of Socio-Pathological Phenomena
Adult civic education of adults can also be found, in various forms, in other subsystems of andragogy. Its application can also be found in social andragogy, whose basic premise is care for adults who have found themselves in situations they cannot solve alone and can be helped through education. In this context, we speak especially about prevention and elimination of socio-pathological phenomena such as racism, extremism, radicalization, criminality, and so on. These topics can also be found in the very content focus of adult civic education.
In the context of preventing and eliminating unwanted phenomena in society, we can understand adult civic education on both the individual level and the level of society as a whole. We may state that one of the current problems of society is precisely racism and extremism. Milo (2005, p.108) defines and characterizes such prevention as follows:
- primary prevention – this concerns people who are at risk from neo-Nazism. The greatest danger in this case is that individuals who sympathize with neo-Nazi ideology may influence other individuals in society through their behavior and views. The author recommends organizing various lectures and creative workshops for this group that could help improve their self-awareness;
- secondary prevention – this is intended for people who have already come into contact in some way with neo-Nazi ideology or organized groups. For this group, specialized counselling is recommended;
- tertiary prevention – this is intended for individuals who have become part of neo-Nazi ideology. These people are so strongly influenced that they lose touch with reality, are not capable of independent thinking, have no arguments, and answer questions with pre-learned phrases. A characteristic feature of these individuals is especially their clothing, behavior, opinions, and expression. The recommended measure in prevention is psychotherapy.
Lichner (2020, pp. 131–132) states that the prevention of racism and extremism should be primarily focused on:
- alerting the public to the possible dangers connected with membership in various extremist groups and sects;
- clarifying to the public the main ideologies of different extremist groups operating in society;
- organizing discussions and lectures led by experts and members of various ethnic groups;
- providing education and professional preparation within the prevention of criminality with manifestations of racism and extremism;
- implementing various educational activities directed toward the area of racism, extremism, xenophobia, and sectarianism.
Similarly, we can also consider another target group in penitentiary and post-penitentiary care, namely people charged in pre-trial detention, serving prison sentences, and subsequently after release. In this context, we can speak not only about working with these people, but we can also consider adult civic education as a possible alternative sentence. The imposition of alternative sanctions is increasingly becoming a global trend, especially due to prison overcrowding. The use of alternative sanctions is linked to promoting so-called restorative care (Lubelcová, 2005). While among the most commonly imposed alternative sanctions are confiscation of property, home confinement, or fines, we are gradually beginning to encounter other forms of alternative sanctions as well. One of the oldest and also one of the most widespread alternative sanctions is probation. Lubelcová (2005, p. 8) states that probation “developed as a way of dealing with the offender and supervising them during conditional punishment (conditional postponement of the execution of a sentence or conditional cessation of criminal proceedings or conditional release). It is characterized by an effort to achieve as comprehensive a social integration of the offender as possible, for which probation provides optimal conditions and necessary help.”
Based on this definition, we can state that adult civic education may represent a form, or a method, of working with this target group within the social integration of the accused, convicted, or released individual. In particular, in cases where the convicted person has been in prison for a long time, it may happen that after release the individual is unable to reintegrate into society. Their value hierarchy has changed, and often democratic values are lost, while unwillingness to participate in social life increases, among other things. Precisely in this context, we view adult civic education as a possible tool for an individual’s resocialization into society. This is also true for other population groups threatened by socio-pathological phenomena. In this context, we can further speak of using resocialization, re-education (e.g., for people dependent on drugs), or social care as such.
Conclusion
In all possibilities for realizing prevention or working with different target groups of social care, we find themes that are part of adult civic education and therefore adult education itself, as the overarching term for educational activities carried out with adult target groups. For this reason we may state that adult civic education has significant standing not only in the field of civic-cultural activities (its primary use in the concept of lifelong learning and systematic andragogy), but also in the area of social prevention and thus work with various at-risk groups of population. At the same time, it is important to note that in work with such groups it is necessary to know their specificities and adapt the entire process of educational activities (from planning, curriculum development, to the actual implementation of education).
The presented contribution deals, among other things, with the importance of adult education and some of its components in the form of civic and global education. Thus, if we want to speak about the development of civic society and democratic values, this development must be understood in the context of various educational concepts. One of these educational concepts is adult education, whose goals and thematic circles are realized through civic and global education. In this context, we speak of acquiring competencies (especially civic ones), as well as shaping an active citizen who can not only work on their own development, but also participate actively in the development of society itself and in the elimination and prevention of the emergence of socio-pathological phenomena in society. The aim of this study was to point out the importance of adult education and some of its subsystems specifically in the context of eliminating and preventing socio-pathological phenomena in society.
At the same time, we wanted to contribute to the development of individual educational concepts (civic and global education), which are currently growing (especially from the perspective of legislative support). Supporting providers of this education should therefore become a societal priority, and through the presented text we also seek to point out the importance and significance of education in the context of addressing various social phenomena.
Author: Mgr. Michaela Beran Sládkayová, PhD. The author works in the Department of Pedagogy and Andragogy (formerly Department of Andragogy) at the Faculty of Education of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica. In her scientific and pedagogical activity, she focuses on the issue of non-formal adult education with a specific focus on adult civic education.
List of Bibliographic References
Beanvot, A, (2018). The invisible friend: adult education and the Sustainable Development Goals In Adult Education and Development. Role and Impact of Adult Education. Bonn: DVV International, no. 85/2018.
Dvoŕáková, M. & Šerák, M. (2016) Andragogika a vzdělávání dospělých. vybrané kapitoly. Praha: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy.
EACEA (2012) Citizenship education in Europe Brussels: EACEA EURYDICE http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/139EN.pdf
EAEA (2016) Manifesto for Adult Leraning in the 21st Century. Brussels: EAEA.
Határ, C. (2012). Sociálna andragogika. Kapitoly z teórie a metodiky sociálno-edukačnej starostlivosti o dospelých. Nitra: UKF Nitra.
Hloušková, L. & Pol, M. (2008). Občanské vzdělávaní dospělých. In Učíme se po celý život? Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
Hoskins, B. & Kerr, D. (2012). Report 4: Final Study Summary and Policy Recommendations Participatory Citizenship in the European Union Institute of Education. Brussels: European Commission.
Hroncová, J. a kol. (2016). Sociológia výchovy a sociálna patológia. Žilina: EDIS.
Jarvis, P. (2004). Lifelong Learning and Active Citizenship in a Global Society. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education. vol.10, no.1.
Kopecký, M. (2010). (Ne)proměnující se požadavky na vzdělavatele v segmentu občanského vzdělávání dospělých. In Trendy a možnosti rozvoje dalšího vzdělávání dospělých v kontextu sjednocující se Evropy. Praha: Česká andragogikcá společnost.
Korim, V. (2012). Politológia a politická etika. Banská Bystrica: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity Mateja Bela.
Krause, J. (2011). Key Note Speech. Visegrad Regional Conference on Global Development Education, Praha. http://www.fors.cz/user_/files/638ce244de0b202abd7c80a743752405
LICHNER, V a kol. 2020. Analýza radikálnych a extrémistických skupín, hnutí, siekt a kultov a ich pôsobenie v Slovenskej republike.Košice: UPJŠ v Košiciach, 2020. 53, 131, 132 s. ISBN 978-80-8152-839-2.
Lubelcová, G. (2005). Alternatívne tresty v kontexte stratégií spoločenskej regulácie kriminality (od trestajúcej k obnovujúcej trestnej spravodlivosti). In Sociológia, Vol 37 (No. 1: 33-.58).
Maastricht Global Education Declaration (2002). https://rm.coe.int/168070e540
Macháček, L. & Šťava, E. (2012). Občianske vzdelávanie a výchova mládeže k občianstvu.
Národná správa z medzinárodného výskumu občianskeho vzdelávania ICCS 2009. Bratislava: NUCEM.
Miléřová, J. (2015). Globální rozvojové vzdělávání: Proč je nezbytné pro českou společnost a udržatelný rozvoj. Praha: České fórum pre rozvojovou spolupráci. http://www.fors.cz/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/GRV-paper-fors-final-web.pdf
MILO, D. 2005. Rasistický extrémizmus v Slovenskej republike. Bratislava: Ľudia proti rasizmu. 2005. 7,8,9,13, 16, 108 s. ISBN- 80-89149-03-0.
O´Shea, K. (2012). Slovník pojmů k výchově k demokratickému občanství. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
Ondrušek, D. a kol. (2012). Tri sektory v spoločnosti: konkurencia či spolupraca. In 10 kapitol o vývoji a občianskej spoločnosti na Slovensku. Bratislava: PDCS.
Petrasová ,A. (2019). Od kritického myšlení ke globálnímu občanství. Příklady dobré praxe. Praha: Národní institut pro další vzělávání.
Protivinský, T. & Dokutilová, M. & Čáp, P. (2013). Občanské vzdělávaní dospělých: súčasné vymezení oboru. In nová ekonomická situace: výzva ke vzdělávaní. Praha: Asociace institucí vzdělávaní dospělých ČR.
Prusáková, V. (2005). Základy andragogiky I. Bratislava: GerlachPrint.
Rawls, J. (1993). Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Skalická, P. a kol. (2020). Globální rozvjové vzdelávaní: proč a jak v Česku lépe vzdělávat o světe. Praha: České fórum pro rozvojovou spolupráci. http://www.fors.cz/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1_FoRS_GRV-Aidwatch_final.pdf
Sládkayová, M. (2019). Občianske vzdelávanie dospelých. Banská bystrica: Belianum.
Sobotová, L. (2012), Cíle a současné podoby globálního rozvojového vzdělávání. In: Máchal A a kol. Úvod do environmentální výchovy a globálního rozvojového vzdělávánní. Soubor učebních textů. Brno: Lipka.
Torres, C. A. & Dorio, J. N. (2015). The do´s and don´ts of Global Citizenship Education. Adult Education and Development Journal, no. 82/2015.
UNESCO. (2015). Global Citizenship Education: Topics and Learning Objectives. Paris: UNESCO.
Veteška, J. (2009). Nové paradigma v kurikuluvzělávání dospélých. Praha: Educa Service.
Veteška, J. (2010). Kompetence ve vzdělávání dospélých. Pedagogické, andragogické a sociální aspekty. Praha: Univerzita Jana Amose Komenského Praha.
Veteška, J. (2016). Přehled andragogiky. Praha: Portál.