Introduction
The influence of Western culture teaches us to pursue our goal no matter what, and that with such an approach, no goal is unattainable. Conversely, those who give up on a goal are often spoken of as weak and cowardly. However, obstacles are a natural part of achieving goals. Various life changes, specifically challenging situations in the form of a serious illness or deterioration of health, are frequent sources of goal obstacles. These can lead even to an individual's reaction to change or abandon the pursuit of a personal goal. The socio-psychological theory of goal revision as an adaptive form of response to obstacles is relatively new in the field of health and healthcare. Therefore, the aim of this article is to present alternatives for adaptively overcoming obstacles, which are a current trend in goal research in social psychology. This offers an explanation of the specifics of achieving personal goals disrupted by a serious diagnosis.
Goal obstacles and the concept of action crisis
Despite the fact that a person sets goals, he does not always achieve them. Several variables can underlie failure in achieving goals. One of them may be subjective obstacles that enter the process of self-regulation and lead to a person failing to achieve chosen personal goals.
Margus, Forster, Van Kleef (2011) define goal obstacles generally as certain interfering forces that prevent a person from achieving a set goal, and these can be situational, social, physical, or mental phenomena. We are particularly interested in the last mentioned. Milyavskaya, Inzlicht, Hope, and Koestner (2015) specify that what matters is what the individual perceives and evaluates as an obstacle and cause of failure. That is, circumstances perceived by the individual in the form of subjective difficulties, as opposed to the traditional understanding of obstacles in the form of objective, external barriers (Higgins et al., 1994). The most frequently measured characteristics of subjective obstacles include frequency and degree of influence or interference in the goal achievement process (Leduc-Cummings, Milyavskaya, Peetz, 2017). There is also an effort at a certain categorization of obstacles. Specifically, Hofmann, Vohs, Baumeister (2012) pointed out that health-related goals were weakened by obstacles such as addictions (tobacco 47%, alcohol 29%), or reduced self-control in maintaining healthy eating (27%).
The accumulation of several obstacles, or the high intensity of even a single obstacle, is covered in psychology under the concept of action crisis, which until recently had not received much attention (Holding et al, 2017). Action crisis is defined as a critical phase in goal pursuit when the goal appears difficult to achieve or even unattainable due to goal obstacles (Brandstätter, Herrmann, Schueller, 2012). A crisis most often occurs when an individual experiences repeated failure in achieving a goal or encounters situations in goal pursuit that he cannot resolve (e.g., sudden deterioration of health) (Brandstätter, Herrmann, Schueller, 2012). He experiences a significant intrapsychic conflict to persist or deviate from the path to the goal. The individual constantly returns in his thoughts to how he is failing to achieve the goal. Despite really wanting to achieve the goal, he often chooses strategies of avoidance or postponing goal-directed activities.
A higher degree of action crisis has been linked in the research literature to factors such as lower levels of subjective well-being and health (Brandstätter, Schueller, 2013). In the long term, however, it can also be perceived positively. For example, thanks to action crisis, a person more quickly abandons pursuing an unrealistic goal and redirects remaining energy toward achieving other goals. Additionally, action crisis mediates a change in mindset. In a situation where an individual is focused on goal pursuit, his thinking takes an implemental form (Gollwitzer, 2013). This means it is narrowly focused very locally, only on information related to goal pursuit. Conversely, action crisis activates deliberative thinking, i.e., a more global "bird's-eye" view of the problem situation. This allows the person distance and provides the opportunity to see the broader complexity of the problem (Margus, Foster, Van Kleff, 2011).
Strategies for overcoming obstacles and action crisis
In the case of obstacles and action crisis, the individual has several options. He can increase his efforts and continue in its pursuit (goal engagement), or he has the option of completely renouncing the goal, disengaging (goal disengagement), or also modifying it into a more realistic, achievable form – redefining the goal (goal reengagement) (Wrosch et al, 2003). Goal redefinition and goal renunciation represent the process of goal revision and are also commonly referred to as adaptive goal change strategies.
Goal revision is a process that results from self-regulation when the pursued goal becomes more difficult to achieve, or becomes unrealistic due to specific situational conditions in the form of obstacles. It is easy to stop pursuing or change goals that are not so important to us, but it is more difficult with goals that matter to us or are personal (Carver, Scheier, 2003).
Goal revision most often takes two forms. The first is the strategy of revising intentions by renouncing the goal (goal disengagement), the second is the strategy of creating a new, modified, more realistic alternative through goal redefinition (goal reengagement) (Wrosch et al., 2003). Wrosch and Miller (2009) explain that the adaptive component of self-regulation includes not only adjusting to the goal, actively pursuing it, but also the ability to adequately respond especially to an unrealistic, unattainable goal by disengaging from such a goal. Thereby discovering new meaning (Boudrenghein, Frenay, Bourgeois, 2012). Renouncing or redefining a goal involves three processes. First, the individual must let go of the energy already invested in achieving the goal and minimize commitment to it. Second, he needs to formulate alternative goals and redirect his effort and commitment toward them. Subsequently, he begins pursuing the alternative goals. Wrosch, Miller (2009) add that renouncing and redefining a goal is individual, so it may be easy and natural for some, more difficult and slower for others.
Revising pursued goals is associated with several benefits:
- The individual does not experience negative emotional impacts as a result of repeated failure on the path to the goal (Wrosch, Miller, 2009).
- The occurrence of depressive symptoms decreases.
- The intensity of perceived stress decreases (Wrosch et al., 2003).
- The frequency and intensity of intrusive thoughts related to the problematic goal decreases.
- Life satisfaction increases.
- Physical condition improves.
- Overall subjective well-being improves (Wrosch et al., 2003).
Wrosch and his colleagues (2003) found that students who more easily gave up their unrealistic goals experienced lower stress, had fewer intrusive thoughts, and conversely achieved a better quality of life. Duke et al. (2002) found that the strategy of giving up a goal also led to better physical health. By comparison, those respondents who only slightly revised their goals had a lower quality of life compared to those who completely gave them up and created new ones (Wrosch, Miller, 2009). Brandstätter, Herrmann, Schüler (2012) explain that if a goal is difficult to achieve, the individual loses interest due to the accumulation of problematic situations associated with striving for its fulfillment.
For comparison, Carver and Scheier (2003) proposed extended alternatives for how an individual can resolve a situation when a goal becomes unattainable due to obstacles (figure). The first option (A) is that he stops exerting effort toward achieving the goal, but does not give up the goal itself. As a consequence, he experiences negative emotions in the form of stress and helplessness. The second path (B) is that he gives up the goal. He then focuses his effort on achieving a goal that is an alternative to the previous intention (B1), or he creates and pursues a completely new goal (B2), or he makes the original goal easier in the sense of the saying: "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush" (B3). Alternatives B1, B2, and B3 are usually accompanied by positive emotions and represent adaptive forms of self-regulation when facing obstacles on the path to a goal. Carver and Scheier (4) however offer a fourth option of renouncing the goal (B4) in the form where the individual does not create any new goal or alternative, because it is not possible or he cannot find one. This alternative is the worst for him because he experiences feelings of loneliness, emptiness, and aimlessness. It is not adaptive because the individual has not discovered new meaning. The responses to obstacles on the path to a goal B1, B2, and B3 are synonymous with the strategy of goal redefinition according to Wrosch and his colleagues (Wrosch et al, 2003). Carver, Scheier (2003) further add that sometimes it is also adaptive to persist on the path to the goal despite obstacles and exert increased effort to achieve the already pursued goal (goal engagement). This is especially appropriate when the individual remains convinced that he has what it takes to achieve the goal and believes in his future success (Carver, Scheier, 2003).
Figure Responses to obstacles on the path to a goal (Carver, Scheier, 2003)
Revising personal goals disrupted by a serious diagnosis
Various life changes, for example difficult situations in the form of illness or deterioration of health, are frequent reasons for the emergence of action crisis and the need to revise goals (Wrosch et al., 2003b). The possibility of renouncing a goal is often necessary in the case of health problems as a significant stressful event. A threat to health can turn previously realistic goals into unattainable ones, as it represents an obstacle on the path to the goal. Forced clinging to an unattainable goal, for example overcoming a difficult-to-cure illness, can lead to frustration and subsequent loss of motivation in treatment (Moskowitz et al, 1996). A serious illness requires repeated doctor visits and numerous examinations, which, in addition to its long-term nature, is another source of stress. Furthermore, patients often experience feelings of uncertainty, fear of the future, or feelings of isolation or exclusion (Pollin, 1994). Stress itself can act as a significant interfering variable and obstacle on the path to a goal, making it unattainable (Wrosch, Amir, Miller, 2013). Well-chosen stress management strategies can alleviate stress, but can also trigger goal revision strategies. Health difficulties are often accompanied by reasons for the need to revise goals due to failure in achieving them.
Wettstein, Wahl, and Heyl (2019) conducted a study with adults with and without sensory impairment. Measurements of subjective well-being revealed that visually impaired participants who adjusted their current situation in accordance with personal goals showed significantly higher negative affect measured 4 years later. Conversely, individuals who adapted their goals to newly emerging limits had dominant positive affectivity in the future. For comparison, in another study, parents of children with cancer who gave up their goals (e.g., suspending career goal orientation in favor of childcare) showed fewer symptoms of depression, and several were even comparable in mental health to parents of healthy children (Wrosch et al, 2003b).
Discussion and conclusion
Striving to achieve personally meaningful goals is an essential condition for subjective well-being and proper development of an individual throughout life (Heckhausen, 1999). However, with regard to life-span development theory, individuals have limited resources and time to achieve all desired goals, therefore they need to choose which goals to pursue. Furthermore, the goal achievement process represents a path along which circumstances or specific obstacles arise, leading to the set goal changing or needing to be changed. Sometimes it is much better to give up unattainable goals and invest the remaining energy into something new. This enables optimal recovery from action crisis.
Authors:
doc. Mgr. Monika Hricová, PhD. The author serves as head of the Department of Psychology at the Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice.
MSc. Natália Sopková, PhD. The author is an external lecturer in Research in Clinical Psychology and Methodology of Psychological Research: Qualitative Approach at the Department of Psychology, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice.
List of References
BOUDRENGHIEN, G., FRENAY, M., BOURGEOIS, E. 2012. Unattainable educational goals: Disengagement, reengagement with alternative goals, and consequences for subjective well-being. European Review of Applied Psychology, 62, no. 3, pp. 147-159.
BRANDSTÄTTER V., HERRMANN M., SCHÜLER J. 2012. The struggle of giving up personal goals: Affective, physiological, and cognitive consequences of an action crisis. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 39, no. 12, pp. 1668–1682.
BRANDSTÄTTER, V., SCHÜLER, J. 2013. Action crisis and cost–benefit thinking: A cognitive analysis of a goal-disengagement phase. J Exp Soc Psychol, 49, no. 3., pp. 543-553.
CARVER, C. S., SCHEIER, M. F. 2003. Self-regulatory perspectives on personality. In I. B. Weiner (Ed.), Handbook of Psychology. London: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 185-208.
DUKE, J., LEVENTHAL, H., BROWNLEE, S., LEVENTHAL, E. A. 2002. Giving up and replacing activities in response to illness, J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 57, no. 4, pp. 367-376.
GOLLWITZER, P. M. 2012. Mindset Theory of Action Phases. In P. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. Higgins, Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 526–546.
HECKHAUSEN, J. 1999. Developmental regulation in adulthood: Age-Normative and Sociostructural Constraints as Adaptive Challenges. NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 213-231.
HECKHAUSEN, J., WROSCH, C., & SCHULZ, R. 2010. A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychol Rev, 117, no. 1, pp. 32–60.
HIGGINS, E. T., RONEY, C., CROWE, E., HYMES, C. 1994. Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems. J Pers Soc Psychol, 66, no. 2, pp. 276-286.
HOFMANN, W., VOHS, K. D., & BAUMEISTER, R. F. 2012. What people desire, feel conflicted about, and try to resist in everyday life. Psychological Science, 23, no. 6, pp. 582–588.
HOLDING, A. C., HOPE, N. H., HARVEY, B., MARION JETTEN, A. S., & KOESTNER, R. 2017. Stuck in limbo: Motivational antecedents and consequences of experiencing action crises in personal goal pursuit. J Pers, 85, no. 6, pp. 893–905.
LEDUC-CUMMINGS, I., MILYAVSKAYA, M., PEETZ, J. 2017. Goal Motivation and the Subjective Perception of Past and Future Obstacles. Pers Indiv Dif, 109, pp. 160-165.
MARGUS, J., FOSTER, J., & VAN KLEEF, G.A. 2011. Stepping back to see the big picture: When obstacles elicit global processing. J Pers Soc Psychol, 101, no.5, pp. 883–901.
MARTIN, L. L., STRACK, F., & STAPEL, D. A. 2004. How the Mind Moves: Knowledge Accessibility and the Fine-tuning of the Cognitive System. In M. B. Brewer & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Social cognition. Blackwell Publishing, pp.54–74.
MILYAVSKAYA, M., INZLICHT, M., HOPE, N., KOESTNER, R. 2015. Saying "no" to temptation: Want-to motivation improves self-regulation by reducing temptation rather than by increasing self-control. J Pers Soc Psychol, 109, no. 4, pp. 677–693.
MOSKOWITZ, J.T., FOLKMAN, S., COLLETTE, L., VITTINGHOFF, E. 1996. Coping and mood during AIDS-related caregiving and bereavement. Ann Behav Med, 18, pp. 49 -57.
POLLIN, I. 1994. Taking Charge: Overcoming the Challenge of Long-Term Illness. Int J Evid Based Health.,9, no. 1, pp. 3-24
THOMPSON, E.H., WOODWARD, J.T., STANTON, A.L. 2011. Moving forward during major goal blockage: situational goal adjustment in women facing infertility. J Behav Med, 34, no. 4, pp. 275-287.
WETTSTEIN, M., WAHL, H.-W., & HEYL, V. 2019. Assimilative and accommodative coping in older adults with and without sensory impairment: Four- year change and prospective relations with affective well-being. Aging Ment Health, 23, no. 3, pp. 1255-1262.
WROSCH C, AMIR, E., MILLER, G.E. 2013. Goal adjustment capacities, coping and subjective well-being: The sample case of caregiving for a family member with mental illness. J Pers Soc Psychol, 100, no. 5, pp. 934-946.
WROSCH, C., MILLER, G. E. 2009. Depressive symptoms can be useful: self-regulatory and emotional benefits of dysphoric mood in adolescence. J Pers Soc Psychol , 96, no.6, pp. 1181-1190.
WROSCH, C, SABISTON, C. M. 2013. Goal adjustment, physical and sedentary activity, and well-being and health among breast cancer survivors. Psychooncology, 22, no. 3, pp. 581–589.
WROSCH, C., SCHEIER, M., CARVER, C., SCHULZ, R. 2003. The importance of goal disengagement in adaptive self-regulation: When giving up is beneficial. Self and Identity, no. 2., pp. 1-20.
WROSCH, C., SCHEIER, M., MILLER, G., SCHULZ, R., CARVER, C. 2003. Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 29, no. 12, pp. 1494-1508.