Effects of different types of attachment styles on children's mental development Developmental psychology emphasizes the impact of early childhood on a person's further development. For this reason, it is very important that all the needs of the child are met from birth. Fulfillment of biological needs is necessary, but not the only condition for healthy and harmonious development. The stability of the environment and the person who primarily cares for the child also plays an important role in the early years. As Haiman (2012) states, the relationship between mother and child can have a dual effect on its development. A child who is provided with enough parental love and care at an early age has a better chance of living a healthy, happy, harmonious and productive life. On the other hand, there are parents who do not understand the meaning of parental love. Lack of love and care can lead to significant problems during childhood and adolescence.

John Bowlby was an important psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who, unlike other proponents of this psychological direction, did not examine childhood retrospectively through the statements of adults. He carried out clinical observations of children with the aim of revealing the psychological and pathopsychological consequences of the loss of a maternal figure in early childhood.

Based on his findings, Bowlby conceived the theory of relational attachment, which assumes that the child has an instinctive tendency to attach to the mother or maternal person (Bowlby, 1958). According to attachment theory, every child is genetically equipped from birth to seek out a person who can provide protection and security. This is a need that was created by evolution. (Brisch, 2011). Both in the presence and in the absence of the mother or other person who primarily cares for the child, the child exhibits certain behaviors. Emotional attachment is mediated by six primary reactions. Crying and smiling have the function of bringing the mother to the child and keeping her close to him. Following and sticking have the opposite function. They keep the baby close to the mother. As Bowlby states, the fifth sucking reaction is difficult to categorize. The sixth response is calling (Bowlby, 1958, Bowlby, 2010). The child's sensory apparatus, which enables orientation to the mother's person, participates in the formation of a relational bond. Equally important is the motor apparatus ensuring contact with this person and the "signal apparatus", such as chattering and hand movements (Hašto, 2005).

Attachment behavior develops in the first year of a child's life. Bowlby explains this by saying that children in this period already have the ability of perceptual discrimination. I can distinguish the mother from other persons. Bonding behavior can manifest itself equally intensively in the second and third year of a child's life. After the third year, a change occurs, as during this period most children can already feel safe with other relational persons (teachers in kindergarten, school). On the other hand, it is important to know that attachment behavior never disappears completely (Bowlby, 2010).

The intensity and consistency of attachment behavior is different for each child. The stimuli coming from the organism or the environment are responsible for the changes. Stimuli from the body that result in short-term changes in binding behavior include hunger, fatigue, illness, dissatisfaction and pain. As for the influence of the environment, attachment behavior is more intense when the child has fear, which can be caused by, for example, the presence of a stranger or an unfamiliar stimulus, as well as rejection by other adults and children (Bowlby, 2010, Bowlby, 2012, Kirschke and Hörmann, 2014).

The child's need for custody does not have to be satisfied only by the biological parent. The child can also orient himself to another person who can provide him with protection. It can be an adoptive parent, an educator in a children's home or another person providing the child with primary care. It is predictable who a child will form a secure attachment to. The child chooses as a close person the person who reacts most sensitively to his expressions (Brisch, 2011).

Bowlby's theory was empirically verified by Mary Ainsworth, who investigated the determinants of relational attachment in non-clinical settings. Her research confirmed the presence of binding behavior in children in the first year of life. (Bowlby, 2010).

Types of relationship bond Emergence of a secure relation bond

Safely restrained children react as expected, as we mentioned above. They are worried when the mother is absent and look forward to her return. On the other hand, the mother also reacts to the child in such a way as to satisfy his currently manifested need. Bowlby (2012) emphasizes that the physical presence of a maternal person is not the only condition for creating a secure relational bond. If a person is "emotionally" absent, inattentive and threatens to leave the child, this can have a pathogenic effect. For this reason, it is important that the mother's reactions to all the baby's signals are appropriate. Rovnaký názor zastáva Haiman (2012). The author lists several conditions that are necessary for the creation of a secure relational bond between mother and child:

  • the mother observes and correctly identifies the child's needs,
  • reacts in a way that adequately satisfies the current need of the child,
  • meets all the child's needs shortly after the child begins to signal a need, e.g.: cries,
  • the mother's behavior is sensitive and loving.

Brisch (2011) in accordance with the facts mentioned above states the meaning of the so-called delicacy. According to the author, the basic prerequisite for creating a secure relationship is for the person who takes care of the child to show the most sensitive reactions in various situations. This means that she should be able to correctly perceive and interpret the child's signals and respond to these signals quickly and appropriately. Sensitive parents must be careful how they interpret the child's signals, as one and the same expression, such as crying, can signal different needs (hunger, thirst, fear) in different situations. Such parents try to respond appropriately to the child's signals until they discover the true need. The author further emphasizes the importance of verbal exchange. Parents who talk about their child's feelings and behavior give him the feeling that they understand how he is feeling. This provides the child with a sense of security. Parents should create short dialogues with the child, while it is important that the child and the parent do not talk at the same time and that the parent does not react too intensely and quickly to every small response of the child. This does not lead to a feeling of security for the child, but on the contrary, he may feel threatened and persecuted. Eye contact and touch also support a secure relationship bond. Eye contact allows communication between the child and the parent, if it is not possible using speech. Physical contact, if it is an appropriate response to the child's reactions, also supports a secure attachment.

Bezpečná vzťahová väzba má dve dôležité funkcie. It provides the child with emotional security and allows him to explore the world. Securely attached children who are provided with adequate care, protection, and support experience a psychological freedom that allows them to explore the world (Brisch, 2011, Shahar-Maharik & Oppenheim, 2016).

The influence of a secure relationship bond on a child's psychological development

Research on early childhood life events has confirmed the existence of certain protective factors in relation to mental disorders. They pointed to the fact that a stable and intimate relationship with at least one person acts as a protective factor and protects against mental disorders (Hašto, 2005). Benoit (2004) states that the quality of the parent-child relationship is a significant predictor of the child's further social and emotional development. It follows that a secure relationship bond has a positive effect on psychological development.

The psycho-neuro-biological model of development explains the above fact by the fact that there is a direct relationship between secure attachment, brain development and the psychological health of the child. How we treat a child in the first two years of life has a significant impact on the maturation of the brain. During this period, the brain develops neurobiological structures mediating the ability to manage stress throughout life (the so-called control system). Second, it is a period when the brain is plastic and sensitive to influences from the social environment. It follows that a parent who responds sensitively and adequately to all the needs of a child creates an environment that facilitates the maturation of the so-called control system in the brain. Thus, a child with a secure attachment will be able to effectively regulate his behavior in various stressful situations, which is essential for his healthy social and emotional development (Malekpour, 2007, Nosková, 2011, Schore, 2001a).

A secure relational bond, as stated by Brisch (2011), is the basis for optimal personality development. It enables the child to safely explore the surrounding world as well as open communication about opinions and feelings (Lečbych and Pospišilíková, 2012). A secure attachment leads to the child being independent and able to form appropriate relationships. Securely attached children have a better ability to resist peer pressure. Gearity (1996) states that an adequately satisfied need for attachment strengthens self-confidence and self-control and is the basis for the development of empathy. Brisch (2011) holds the same opinion. Children with a secure attachment have a better ability to empathize in preschool. They can empathize better with the thoughts and feelings of their friends. On the other hand, they can empathize better with the intentions and needs of the mother and this allows them to find compromises. Children with a secure attachment are more resilient in coping with stress. They are cooperative, can adapt better and are competent in conflict resolution. These positive patterns of behavior tend to persist. This is evidenced by the fact that adolescents who were securely attached to their parents in early childhood tend to establish better and more lasting friendships (Zimmermann, 2004, Hašto and Tavel, 2015).

A safe or secure emotional bond not only affects the child's social-emotional competences, but also significantly affects his cognitive development. Van Ijzendoorn, Dikstra, and Bus (1995) compared several studies that focused on the quality of the relational bond in relation to intelligence and language development. They came to the conclusion that a high-quality relational bond has a significant effect on language development and only a moderate effect on intellect. They explain that most research examining the relationship between attachment quality and intelligence has focused on middle-class families from non-at-risk populations. They believe that a secure relational bond can be an important protective factor in relation to intellect, especially in families in which the child's cognitive development can be threatened by various negative influences. As another possible explanation, they state that intelligence tests may be of lower quality than tests of language competence. A third possible explanation is that there is little research focusing on language competence. For that reason, we have to take the results of their meta-analysis with a certain reserve. West, Matthews, and Kerns (2013) pointed out that children who were securely attached to their mothers in the second and third years of life later showed higher academic performance and higher IQ. Birsch (2011) states, in accordance with the above findings, that children with a certain relational bond have better abilities to learn and remember. Not only is their memory better, but also their speech development. As we stated at the beginning, attachment behavior never completely disappears. In order for the child to be able to continue exploring, to accept new learning offers in kindergarten and school, and thereby achieve good results, he needs to create another secure bond with the educator in the kindergarten and later with the teacher at school. What is important is the fact that the relationship between relational attachment and cognitive development is reciprocal. A child's cognitive abilities can significantly affect the quality of the bond between him and his parent. Cognitively more mature children know how to express their needs and feelings better, and those who react to it can react more sensitively.

Emergence of uncertain bond

Disruption of the development of an emotional bond can result in the emergence of an anxious or insecure bond. We distinguish 3 types of insecure attachment: insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent and insecure-disorganized (Ainswort et al., 1978 in Bowlby, 2010, Malekpour, 2007).

Children with an insecure-avoidant relationship hardly show any protest when separated from their mother or another close person. By ignoring the person, they outwardly show that they do not see the separation as a problem. When the person returns, these children do not show any positive emotions such as joy or satisfaction. In some cases, they behave more friendly to a stranger than to their mother. Lečbych and Pospišilíková (2012) refer to this type of bond as a distanced-avoidant type. Rejection or insufficient contact of the mother with the child, as well as unclear communication, contribute to the formation of this bond. In this case, these are persons for relational ties who lead their children to the fact that in situations when the child feels threatened, it does not need the help or support of an adult (Brisch, 2011). They emphasize the child's autonomy. Thus, the child slowly gets used to the fact that he stops signaling his needs and thus stops looking for the proximity of the parent (Kirschke & Hörmann, 2014). Despite the fact that it seems to us that these children do not experience any stress when separated from their mother, the opposite is true. Parents who react negatively to their child's signals often experienced the same thing in their own childhood (Brisch, 2011).

Children with an insecure - ambivalent relational bond react very intensely to the separation and absence of the mother or other person for the relational bond. They protest, cry and are visibly stressed. They react very violently at the slightest separation from their mother. Since even children with a secure attachment react very violently and intensively to the absence of the mother, it is very difficult to distinguish between these two types of attachment at this stage. Therefore, the child's reaction to the mother's arrival plays a decisive role. Such children react to the mother's return by showing a need for a relational bond on the one hand, but there are also signals by which they try to avoid that bond (Brisch, 2011, Ruppert, 2011). This type of bond is characterized by ambivalence. It may seem to us that the child is, on the one hand, punishing the mother for leaving him and, on the other hand, trying to signal the need for her presence (Lečbych and Pospišilíková, 2012). Such behavior of the child worries the person who takes care of him, as the child sends contradictory signals (Brisch, 2011). This type of bond can arise, for example, if the mother responds appropriately to the child's signals in some situations, but behaves in a dismissive manner in others. Such unpredictable behavior on the part of the mother creates a feeling of insecurity in the child, which leads to indecisiveness (Kirschke & Hörmann, 2014). In this case too, the mother's early experiences play an important role, which can lead to the emergence of an uncertain-ambivalent bond (Brisch, 2011).

Despite the fact that the above two types of binding are uncertain, we can describe them as organized. Children with avoidant and ambivalent attachment develop patterns of behavior that are predictable. In contrast, disorganized attachment is characterized by the “disintegration” of organized behavior (Shakar-Maharik and Oppenheim, 2016). This type of attachment arises when the mother behaves in a confused and moody manner for a long time, while in the background there may be insufficiently processed trauma (Kirschke & Hörmann, 2014). The same opinion is held by Benoit (2004). The author states that, in accordance with various research findings, the behavior of the mother or other person for the relational bond, which we refer to as "atypical" and which can lead to any unprocessed trauma or grief, can lead to disorganized attachment in children. The author cites post-traumatic stress disorder as an example. In children with disorganized attachment, affiliative and avoidant manifestations alternate quickly. These children often show their confusion through bizarre behavior such as stereotyping or stiffness of expression. They can approach the mother, while their face is turned away and they can feel fear while doing so (Main and Solomon, 1990 in Lečbych and Pospišilíková, 2012, Brisch, 2011, Jacobvitz and Hazen, 1999).

Haiman (2012) lists the following conditions that significantly contribute to the emergence of insecure attachment:

  • the mother does not respond to the child's needs,
  • the mother's reaction is delayed,
  • the mother's reaction is disproportionate, she may react loudly, suddenly and excessively,
  • the mother does not respect the child's needs, for example she can occupy him with toys of his choice,
  • adequate reactions of the mother to the signaled need of the child are not frequent enough for the child to realize the relationship between them.

According to Ruppert (2001, p. 70), insecure attachment can occur if the parents "are dead, physically ill, mentally disturbed, too preoccupied with themselves or fundamentally reject the child and actually do not want him at all".

The influence of insecure attachment on the child's psychological development

As stated by Brisch (2011) and Ruppert (2011), insecure attachment poses a risk for healthy psychological development.

In accordance with the psycho-neuro-biological model of development, a child's adverse morning experiences can negatively affect his later abilities to handle stressful situations. Insecure attachment can significantly disrupt the maturation and functioning of the brain. Stress hormone production is increased in children with insecure attachment. There is direct evidence that childhood trauma caused by abuse, neglect, or psychological deprivation "disrupts the development of those parts of the brain that are responsible for maintaining interpersonal relationships, coping with stressful stimuli, and regulating emotions" (Schore, 2001b, p.208). This can later lead to apathy or problem behavior and can also cause depression. These children often have learning difficulties and may suffer from chronic illnesses. They may develop behavioral disorders as well as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Malekhpour, 2007, Nosková, 2011, Schore, 2001b). Children with insecure attachment are more likely to develop psychological disorders due to increased psychological stress (divorce of parents, loss of a friend). We can explain this by the fact that they lack behavioral patterns that would allow them to overcome these traumas. This can seriously threaten their healthy psychological development (Brisch, 2011, Hašto, 2005). It follows from the above that an insecure relationship is not the immediate cause of psychological disorders. Today we already know that not only the quality of the relationship bond in childhood plays a significant role. Equally important are the current relationships of the person, his psychological predispositions as well as the influence of the environment (Shahar-Maharik and Oppenheim, 2016).

Although insecure attachment may not directly cause a psychological disorder, its negative impact on the psychological development of children has been pointed out by several authors. Children with insecure-avoidant attachment are exposed to constant rejection by the mother, which can lead to delinquent behavior. There are often hostile and antisocial elements in their behavior (Hašto, 2005). These children are more likely to complain of nausea, headaches and abdominal pain, vomiting and sleep disorders. All these symptoms are a manifestation of the stress that these children experience when being separated from a person for a relational bond, despite the fact that they do not show it (Brisch, 2011). Impulsivity and low frustration tolerance are characteristic of children with insecure-ambivalent attachment (Hašto, 2005). They often resolve conflicts with verbal aggression. They have few friends, which can be explained not only by aggressiveness, but also by an underdeveloped ability to empathize. But in some cases, they appear to be powerless and passive. Compared to securely attached children, their memory, persistence, flexibility and speech development are not sufficiently well developed, therefore they achieve worse results in school (Brisch, 2011). While in childhood a disorganized type of attachment is closely associated with internalized forms of problem behavior, in adolescence it can significantly contribute to the emergence of psychological disorders (Carlson, 1998).

Shahar-Maharik and Oppenheim (2016) focused on how the consequences of insecure attachment manifest themselves at different stages of childhood. Regarding toddlerhood, while children with an insecure-avoidant attachment tend to show more anger and aggression during this period, ambivalently attached toddlers are characterized by anxiety. The disorganized relationship bond has a significant impact on the relationship between the child and the mother during this period. The sense of security in these children in the presence of the mother is much lower than in securely attached children (Carlson, 1998). In preschool age, a child with avoidant attachment is more dependent on the person who takes care of him. They are more negativistic, less persistent. They have difficulty adapting to different situations. Already during this period, these children have behavioral problems. Unlike children with insecure-avoidant attachment, children with ambivalent attachment are more independent, but also less persistent. Children with disorganized attachment try to control everything. They tend to manipulate parents (Jacobvitz and Hazen, 1999). When it comes to school age, insecurely attached children have trouble making friends. While children with avoidant attachment tend to isolate themselves from peers, children with ambivalent attachment desire to have friends but are hesitant to make contact (Shahar-Maharik and Oppenheim, 2016). Jacobvitz and Hazen (1999) pointed out that disorganized attachment also has a negative impact on the child's relationship with peers. Another important period is adolescence. Shahar-Maharik and Oppenheim (2016) highlight two tasks that an adolescent must cope with. The first is finding a balance between independence and attachment to parents. The second task is establishing stable and confidential relationships with peers. Insecurely attached children have problems with both tasks in adolescence. They find it difficult to find a balance between dependence and independence. Zimmermann (2004) pointed to a positive relationship between insecure attachment, social anxiety and hostility in adolescence. Adolescents with insecure attachment in childhood are often unable to adequately resolve conflicts with their peers.

Possibilities of preventing the emergence of an insecure relationship and eliminating its negative impact on the child's psychological development

Birsch (2011) pointed out the importance of preparing future parents for the arrival of the child. In his book, the author describes the SAFE program (safe education for parents), in which parents can learn how to behave towards their child in order to create a safe bond between them. First of all, it is very important that parents are able to adequately manage stressful situations both during pregnancy and after childbirth. Research has confirmed that anxiety and stress can have a negative effect not only on the emotional availability of the future mother, but also on the level of stress tolerance in the infant. This can lead to the creation of an insecure bond.

An insecure bond arises, as we mentioned above, when the parent is unable to correctly identify the child's signals and respond appropriately to these signals. For this reason, it is essential that he be sensitive and empathetic. In connection with the mother's empathetic behavior, the term mentalizing is also used. Hašto and Tavel (2015, p. 99) define it as "taking in, empathizing with the child's subjective world, which mothers accompany with verbalization, as if speaking for the child and its needs". The authors further state that this is not a classically understood ability of empathy. In this case, the mother not only reacts sensitively to the child's needs, but also reflects her own inner state.

Transgenerational transmission plays an important role in the formation of a relational bond. There is a direct connection between the relational bond of parents, their behavior towards their child and the relational bond of the child (Brisch, 2011). Parents who experience secure attachment are more likely to form the same bond with their child. Parents with insecure attachment who were rejected in childhood or whose parents' responses to their needs contradicted each other will not be able to respond appropriately to their child's needs. On the other hand, there are parents who, despite having no experience with secure attachment, are able to react sensitively and empathetically to their child. We can explain this by the fact that their later relationships corrected inappropriate behavior patterns acquired in early childhood (Hašto and Tavel, 2015). Adequate and stable friendships, partner relationships as well as stable relationships with the extended family can contribute to the fact that even a parent with an insecure bond can provide protection, support and security to their child. Nor does a traumatized parent necessarily behave in a way that leads to a disorganized attachment relationship. If he is unable to cope with the traumatic experience himself, he can seek professional help (counseling, psychotherapy). A parent who has been through trauma and has been able to cope with it is not blinded by feelings of fear, anger, shame or guilt and thus does not perceive his child's signals in a distorted way (Shahar-Maharik and Oppenheim, 2016).

Mitigating the negative impact of insecure attachment is not easy. Early intervention is important. Psychotherapy has the task of reorganizing the child's relationship with an adult. On the one hand, it allows an adult to have an overview. It gives him the opportunity to see what serious consequences his behavior had in relation to the child. Therapy helps to change these patterns of behavior, which can contribute to a change in the relationship between the child and the adult. On the other hand, therapy also focuses on preventing or correcting the undesirable consequences of an insecure relationship. It allows the child to cope with the trauma that was caused by the adult's rejecting or disorganized behavior. It gives him the opportunity to learn effective coping strategies, to be able to express his feelings in an appropriate way, and to be able to establish lasting and stable relationships. Since the consequences of insecure attachment can manifest in various areas of the child's life, cooperation is essential not only with the extended family, but also with other persons with whom the child is in regular contact and can establish a confidential relationship with them (educators, teachers).

Conclusion

There are many experts who take a critical approach to the theory of relational attachment. Despite this fact, it is impossible to deny the influence of early emotional bonding on the child's psychological development. For this reason, it is necessary to provide the child with such conditions from birth that fulfill the primary needs of security and safety. Therefore, not only parents, but also other persons who take care of the child should be freed from their traumas, they should be able to adequately deal with stressful situations, they should be sensitive and they should be able to correctly "read" their child's signals and react to all these manifestations appropriately.

As Brisch (2011) states, emotional experiences and not genetic kinship are important for the formation of a bond.

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