The paper is a partial output of the VEGA project of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences No. 1/0084/21 entitled Personal, cognitive and motivational predictors of teachers' professional competences in undergraduate training and practice and the project UGA V/11/2022 Psychological literacy and professional competence of teachers in practice.
Introduction
The last decades are characterized by the worldwide development of science and technology, the information explosion and the practical application of new technologies. Change has been a feature of society since time immemorial, but nowadays changes are so radical that their consequences on human life cannot be ignored. In the context of these huge changes, we can point out the fact that people living in today's society are being made increasingly high demands, not only in the professional field, but also in their personal life. However, the purpose is no longer just to acquire certain knowledge and classify it in the system of knowledge, but to develop such abilities that predispose him to a full and happy life. In this context, we can talk about the increasing need for continuous personal development and education in all areas of a person's life. Several studies (Goleman, 1997; Bar-On, 2005; Woitaszewsky, Aalsma, 2004) point to the fact that the most successful individuals in any field have extremely developed emotional intelligence. Expertise or the ability to think logically remain very important skills, but the real key to success is connecting the rational and emotional realms.
The focus of our attention is on a teacher who performs several work duties and who is confronted with a number of problems in the school environment on a daily basis. Coping with these stressful situations requires certain social and emotional skills, which he should develop in a targeted manner. In addition, the teacher is an important subject of education, who plays an important role in shaping the personality of students. In order to be able to develop the necessary emotional and social skills in students, he himself must have them. Currently, the effort is to implement emotional and social education in all levels of education. We see the importance of this education in the fact that it contributes to the successful functioning of the individual in the social world (Goleman, 1997) and at the same time fulfills a preventive function, because it prevents problems in the individual's behavior and many psychological disorders (Gajdošová, Herényiová, 2002). The effort to improve the psychological functioning and health of a person, as well as the effort to eliminate and minimize the negative effects of contemporary society, significantly determined the development of the construct of emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is a construct that is understood very differently by the scientific community. This variability has resulted in the creation of different approaches in the process of constructing emotional intelligence. The current understanding of emotional intelligence presents two main lines by which we can define this construct. The first line goes back to the beginnings of the concept, when many experts defined emotional intelligence as an ability (Salovey, Mayer, 1990). Adherents of the second line agree that emotional intelligence is not an ability, but rather a trait (Petrides, 2001, in Kaliská, Nábělková, 2015). When we view emotional intelligence as an ability, we mean a performance variable that refers to what an individual is able to do, points to behavior, and quantifies performance. On the other hand, if we interpret emotional intelligence as a trait, we mean a personality characteristic that relates to what the individual really does, what he really is. Thus, it manifests itself in the form of typical ways of processing emotional stimuli and personality traits. Several authors hold the opinion that these models are not mutually exclusive, but rather complement each other and their essence is more or less interpersonal and intrapersonal components.
Our perception of emotional intelligence is moving closer to understanding emotional intelligence as a trait. In our research, we therefore lean towards Petrides' model of emotional intelligence (2009), which consists of four main factors: emotionality, sociability, well-being, self-control.
Petrides' (2009) model is the first model of trait emotional intelligence. It is made up of four general dimensions, which contain another thirteen sub-areas and two separate dimensions. Each of these dimensions reflects a certain personality variable, related in a certain way to the emotions of the individual. Petrides (2009) defines four basic factors:
- Emotionality represents self-efficacy in perceiving and expressing emotions. It includes trait empathy, emotion perception, relational competence, and emotion expression.
- Sociability refers to the field of interpersonal interactions and is formed by one's own effectiveness in this field. It is also applied in managing and directing the emotions of others. These include emotion management, social awareness and assertiveness.
- Well-being includes features linked to personality dispositions. This includes optimism, characteristic happiness, but also self-esteem.
- Self-control is a factor affecting aspects of self-efficacy used in the regulation of emotions and impulses. These include emotional regulation, stress management and (low) impulsivity.
Within this model, the authors also define the aforementioned separate dimensions, which are made up of adaptability and self-motivation. Adaptability refers to the degree of flexibility of an individual in relation to work, but also to life. If the level of this trait is high, the individual is able to adapt to a new environment or conditions. Self-motivation refers to doing quality work. A high level of this trait indicates the presence of strong and especially internal motivation to perform (Kaliská, Nábělková, 2015).
Over the past twenty-five years, emotional intelligence has proven to be one of the key components in the regulation of emotions, leading to life success, personal well-being, high-quality interpersonal relationships, manifested in various contexts of everyday life. We believe that emotional intelligence, as one of the key abilities, can contribute to a more fulfilling functioning in today's world, if it is sufficiently developed. For this reason, the main idea of our research is the development of the emotional intelligence of teachers through a training program, which we consider an important tool for shaping the personality of (not only) an adult. Bratská (2000), Hroncová, Hudecová, Matulayová (2000), Fichnová (2001), Verešová (2001), Gajdošová, Herényiová (2002), Šramová (2002), Tokárová et al. also talk about the positive effects of training programs on the intrapersonal and interpersonal characteristics of participants in our conditions. (2003), Škorvagová (2007), Határ (2008), Perhacs (2010), Hupková (2011), Kiselová (2015), Kaliská (2017), Müller de Morais, Jedličková (2017), Müller de Morais, Rapsová (2018), Rapsová (2021) and others. The foreign scientific database also contains several research studies that discuss the issue of emotional intelligence and its development in diverse target groups (Nelis et al., 2009; Kotsou et al., 2011; Habibzadeh et al., 2015; Nitkovski et al., 2017 and many others).
The experiment itself was preceded by the compilation of an emotional intelligence training program for the target group of teachers, which was tied to Petrides' (2009) model of emotional intelligence as a trait. In the training program designed by us, the content was made up of educational activities that we adapted to the aforementioned model of emotional intelligence. This model consists of four basic factors (emotionality, sociability, well-being and self-control), the development of which we sought.
Research hypotheses
The priority task of the research was the search for an answer to the main research question: Is it possible to develop selected factors of trait emotional intelligence (measured by the TQEI-SF questionnaire) in teachers through an author's training program?
In our research, we lean towards the mentioned Petrides model of emotional intelligence (2009), which consists of four main factors: emotionality, sociability, well-being, self-control. Based on this model, we formulated four hypotheses. The fifth hypothesis refers to the global level of trait emotional intelligence.
H1 We assume that in the experimental group, the level of the "emotionality" factor will increase statistically significantly with EI training. H2 We assume that in the experimental group, the level of the "sociability" factor will statistically significantly increase with EI training. H3 We assume that in the experimental group, the level of the "well-being" factor will statistically significantly increase with EI training. H4 We assume that in the experimental group, EI training will statistically significantly increase the level of the "self-control" factor. H5 We assume that in the experimental group, the global level of trait emotional intelligence will statistically significantly increase with EI training.
Research File
The research team was made up of secondary school teachers working in the Nitra Region (Slovak Republic). A total of 16 participants took part in the experiment, which we divided equally into two experimental and two control groups. We implemented 70 hours of emotional intelligence training in experimental groups. In the control groups, there was no interaction towards the development of emotional intelligence.
Based on theoretical knowledge, the optimal group for training programs consists of a maximum of fifteen members. Based on our experience, we identify with Müller de Morais and Rapsová (2019), who claim that a smaller number of members can bring more intensive work in the training group and lead to the expected positive results.
The main criterion according to which we compiled the research set was the criterion of productive age, i.e. that the participants of our training program focused on the development of emotional intelligence are a working group in education and have completed at least the second level of higher education. We set this criterion on the basis that emotional intelligence is reflected in this target group's working and non-working life, affects performance at work, but also enables adults of productive age to develop.
Our research group was entirely composed of women and the age range was 29-53. The female representation in our experiment can be justified by the feminization of the teaching profession.
Research Methods
The main method of our research was an experiment with two experimental groups that underwent EI training and two control groups in which we did not implement any intentional stimulation of emotional intelligence.
In the research, we focused on the experimental verification of the impact of the emotional intelligence training we created on the factors of emotional intelligence (emotionality, sociability, well-being and self-control). The TEIQue trait emotional intelligence questionnaires (Petrides, 2009) are generally considered to be the most appropriate and comprehensive tool for measuring trait emotional intelligence, which can take different forms depending on the target group to which they are addressed.
Since the full form of this questionnaire of trait emotional intelligence is not yet available in our conditions, we used the shortened form of the questionnaire of trait emotional intelligence for adults TQEI-SF to measure the factors of emotional intelligence. In our conditions, it is the only comprehensive tool for measuring trait emotional intelligence with scientifically verified psychometric parameters. Since we understood emotional intelligence as a trait, our program was based on the already mentioned Petrides model of emotional intelligence (2009), which was elaborated in more detail in our conditions by Kaliská and Nábělková (2015). The authors constructed the Slovak orientation standards of this questionnaire for all its forms and, thanks to their research, the given tools became tools that can also be used in our linguistic and cultural environment. The advantage of the questionnaire is that it allows to determine not only the level of subjectively perceived emotional characteristics, but also the global level of trait emotional intelligence. The Short Form of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire for Adults (TQEI-SF) used by us contains 30 items that relate to individual factors of trait emotional intelligence. The respondents' task is to answer using a seven-point scale of agreement - disagreement (completely disagree - completely agree). This questionnaire was used to find out whether the program created by us aimed at developing emotional intelligence can develop emotional intelligence in its individual factors and achieve more significant changes in them in experimental groups compared to control groups.
We administered the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire in the abbreviated form of the TQEI-SF in both experimental and control groups twice - before the implementation of the emotional intelligence training and after its completion (Table 1).
Table 1 Experimental plan
Research Results and Discussion
The most important prerequisite for a correctly implemented experiment is the balance of the experimental and control groups. For this reason, at the beginning of the experiment, we implemented a pretest of all groups involved in the experimental investigation to make sure that the groups of participants were equivalent. Based on the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test, we determined the level of statistical significance p in selected factors of emotional intelligence in the participants of the experiment in the pretest. Through statistical analysis, we found that there is no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in our research (p = 0.87; p = 0.27; p = 0.60; p = 0.65; p = 0.23) in individual factors of emotional intelligence, and we can consider all groups (ES1, KS1, ES2, KS2) as equal. In Table 2, we present a more comprehensive overview of the results of the statistical analysis of the pretests of the experimental and control groups.
Table 2 Initial measurement of experimental and control groups
In the presented table, it can be observed that the measured values of the diameters (M) are approximately the same. Ensuring the equality of all groups is a basic premise of any experiment. Tomšik (2017) claims that if one of the groups was fundamentally better at the beginning of the experiment, or worse, it is likely that she will be favored during the entire research, or disadvantaged and we will be able to attribute the results of the experiment to a certain extent to their characteristics before the start of the experiment.
Based on the establishment of the equivalence of all groups included in the experiment, we were able to continue the research and find out the individual values measured in the tested groups in the pretests and posttests. For better statistical understanding and evaluation, we combined the experimental and control groups, and we analyze the results in relation to one experimental (ES-8) and one control group (KS-8).
Based on the results of the measurements carried out through the TQEI-SF questionnaire, a slight increase in the values achieved in the experimental group in the post-test can be observed, i.e. after the application of the emotional intelligence training program in all observed variables. The control group, in which we did not implement any intervention, shows approximately the same characteristics as the experimental group. A slight increase in the average values of monitored variables can also be observed in this group. Tables 3 and 4 present descriptive statistics of the achieved values of the experimental and control groups in selected factors of trait emotional intelligence in the pretest and posttest.
Table 3 Achieved ES values in selected factors of trait EI in pretest and posttest
Table 4 Achieved KS values in selected factors of trait EI in the pretest and posttest
Based on the values presented in the tables, it can be concluded that there was a slight increase in the monitored variables in both groups. Despite this fact, it is still not possible to claim that the action of the training program increased these values from a statistically significant point of view.
Verification of the effectiveness of emotional intelligence training
In the experimental investigation, we monitored the dynamics of changes in the level of individual factors of emotional intelligence among secondary school teachers.
Table 5 shows comparisons of individual factors of trait emotional intelligence measured by the TQEI-SF questionnaire at the entire level of the experimental group. For better statistical understanding and evaluation, we combined the experimental and control groups, and we analyze the results in relation to one experimental (ES-8) and one control group (KS-8).
In the experimental groups that completed emotional intelligence training, we found a statistically significant increase in values in the factor of sociability, well-being and the global level of trait emotional intelligence at the significance level of 0.05.
Table 5 Achieved values in selected factors of trait EI in the pretest and posttest at the entire level of the experimental group
In the first hypothesis, we assumed that in the experimental group, the level of the "emotionality" factor will increase statistically significantly with EI training. In the experimental group made up of teachers, in the final testing, which was carried out after the emotional intelligence training, we noticed a slight increase in the values of the emotionality factor compared to the initial measurement, but these differences are not statistically significant (p = 0.696). However, the achieved average values of this factor indicate that the participants of the training program are in harmony with their own emotions and the emotions of other people. They can perceive and express emotions and use these qualities to develop and maintain relationships with people who are close and personally important to them. They know how to understand and empathize with the needs and desires of other people. Individuals with higher levels of emotionality usually have fulfilling personal, interpersonal, and close relationships that positively affect their productivity and emotional well-being.
We found a shift in values in the direction of an increase of 0.65 points in the comparison of the input and output measurements in the experimental group in the sociability factor, which confirmed hypothesis H2, in which we assumed that in the experimental group, the level of the "sociability" factor will statistically significantly increase with EI training. Between the experimental group in the pretest and posttest there is a statistically significant difference at the 0.05% significance level (p = 0.025) in the sociability factor. The measured values in this factor indicate that the participants of the training group are better able to interact with other people in social groups. They can be characterized as successful social types of people who can actively listen and effectively provide feedback to other people. They are considered good partners in communication, as they are direct, but at the same time sincere and empathetic towards other people. They know how to communicate and cooperate with people of different origins or social backgrounds. They are able to handle other people's emotional states very well, they know how to calm, support and motivate. At the same time, they have control over their own emotions and the way they express them, which allows them to function confidently in various social contexts. It is likely that due to their significant influence on other people, they are good organizers with developed social skills.
In the well-being factor, we recorded a statistically significant increase in average values by 0.4 points in the post-test compared to the pre-test. The third hypothesis, in which we assumed that the level of the "well-being" factor will statistically significantly increase in the experimental group with EI training, can be confirmed. The well-being factor is related to the personal well-being of the individual, stemming from the perception of personal achievements from the past and positive expectations for the future. An increased score in this factor also means an increase in positive feelings of happiness and life fulfillment. Individuals with a higher level of this factor have higher self-esteem, thanks to which they appear sovereign and dominant. The increase in values in the well-being factor also increases the experience of well-being. These individuals are full of optimism, look at things from the positive side and expect a positive future. They believe that they will be successful in life, therefore they are increasingly looking for new opportunities for their application and personal growth.
In the fourth hypothesis, we assumed that after applying the author's training program for the development of EI, there will be a statistically significant difference between the input and output measurements in the self-control factor among teachers. We assumed that the level of the self-control factor would increase. Statistical analysis showed that there is no statistically significant difference between the experimental group in the pretest and posttest at the 0.05% level of significance (p = 0.649) in the self-control factor. Although we did not record a statistically significant increase in values in the self-control factor as well as in the emotionality factor, the average values of this factor indicate that the participants of the training program can control their impulses and desires. They have a reasonable ability to regulate and manage workload and stress, they can direct their emotions and correct bad moods.
In the participants of the experimental group, in the final measurement after the implementation of the EI training, compared to the initial measurement, we recorded a statistically significant increase in the average values of the group in the global level of trait emotional intelligence. It follows from the above that between the experimental group in the pretest and posttest there is a statistically significant difference at the 0.05% level of significance (p = 0.038) in the global level of trait emotional intelligence after completing the emotional intelligence training. Hypothesis H5 can be confirmed.
Conclusion
Emotional intelligence is an important part of an individual's life, without which it is impossible to achieve the set goals, not only in the professional but also in the personal area. Many studies show that when a person is able to be aware of and control their emotions, as well as the emotions of others, this ability can become an important element in ensuring a happier and more successful life. In the past decades, the lay public has many times succumbed to the opinion that only an intelligent person can achieve a happy and, above all, a successful life, as long as he acts rationally. Later, however, it was proven that a person's overall mental performance does not necessarily ensure success in all areas of his life. This is evidenced by the statements of several experts who have dealt with this issue. Goleman (2000) describes that on the basis of IQ as well as test results, despite their considerable popularity, it is not possible to predict an individual's success in life. Brody (1992) argues that IQ is a somewhat narrow concept, and while it strongly predicts success in school and work, it is not a very good predictor of successful functioning in everyday life. Gardner (1995) offers an interesting explanation related to the issue of intelligence and success in life and claims that the position that a person will eventually get in society is mostly limited by factors other than IQ and touches the space from social origin to luck. Similarly, Herrnstein and Murray (1996) argue that the association between school test scores and specific life achievements is overshadowed by the influence of a whole range of other abilities that a person uses in life. These abilities also include emotional intelligence, the primary goal of which is to improve a person's psychological functioning in real life. Emotional intelligence refers primarily to an individual's ability to assert himself in a social environment through his abilities. Thus, contemporary society does not only require a rational personality who makes decisions based on reason and logic, but above all a personality who can regulate his behavior and emotions in various life situations. Also, several studies (Perhács, Paška, 1995; Bartoňková, 2010; Kandela, 2015 and others) declare that the purpose of education has long been not only the acquisition of certain theoretical knowledge, but above all the acquisition of such knowledge and experience that would help individuals to better adapt to changes and the fast pace of society.
Our contribution dealt with the interpretation of the partial results of our research, in which we experimentally verified the effectiveness of the training program created and implemented by us aimed at developing the emotional intelligence of teachers. We dare to say that the development of emotional intelligence in an interactive form, in the form of practicing individual situations together with the accompanying emotional experience, can be manifested in the improvement of the social functioning of individuals and in other positive changes in their experience and behavior.
The results of our research confirmed our assumptions about the impact of training on teachers' emotional intelligence. These positive effects can be perceived in the area of creating, building and developing interpersonal relationships, in the area of communication, assertiveness, empathy, optimism, experiencing happiness, in the ability to express and name one's emotions and in other abilities necessary for a successful life in modern society.
Despite the fact that the results of our research investigation cannot be generalized for the entire population or for the entire group of teachers, we allow ourselves to state that in the context of our findings, we can talk about the effectiveness of our training program.
Achieved positive changes can be maintained through deliberate and long-term stimulation in the form of trainings implemented as part of lifelong learning. We are of the opinion that a person of the 21st century needs emotional intelligence in every area of his life, and that it is by developing it that he can become an active individual in society. For this reason, we propose to apply such programs in a targeted and long-term manner in diverse target groups.
We came to the conclusion that through emotional intelligence training it is possible to increase its level in individual factors, prevent e.g. and undesirable behavior manifested in the form of socio-pathological phenomena. Such training enables individuals to learn to handle the diverse situations they face outside of their working hours in a constructive way. Ultimately, the ability to behave in an emotionally mature manner is connected with the cultural behavior of individuals not only towards themselves, other people, but also towards the society in which a person lives.
Authors: Mgr. Lucia Rapsová, PhD. University of Konstantin Filozofa in Nitra, Faculty of Pedagogy, Department of Pedagogical and School Psychology Mgr. Radka Zimanová, PhD. University of Constantine the Philosopher in Nitra, Faculty of Pedagogy, Department of Pedagogy
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