Paternity
For the very beginning, it is important to explain and define the concept of "fatherhood". Fatherhood has been in our society since time immemorial and, like everything, it has also developed together with people throughout history. Kobová and Bosá (2017) define fatherhood as a relationship that, in a narrow sense, refers to the biological relationship between a man and his children, but its other social and legal aspects are important. The traditional model of fatherhood is defined in contrast to idealized idea of motherhood and fathers are usually characterized as absent, distant, without stronger emotional involvement in relationships with children."
"The perception of parenthood in Western civilization has long been characterized by dualism in the characteristics, abilities and expectations placed on men and women. Motherhood is largely understood as a biological connection between mother and child, and women are considered automatically capable of caring for offspring. This automaticity results from the "naturalness" of man as an animal (mammal). The father-child relationship, on the other hand, is primarily defined socially - a man becomes a father not by the birth of a child, but by constructing a relationship. This construction is influenced by many factors - social and cultural (societal values, roles and tasks assigned to men and women), group (expectations of the immediate and extended family and the man's surroundings), partner (negotiation of the parental couple about their roles as father and mother), individual (characteristics of the father and child, sex of the child, birth order), influences of upbringing based on the orientation family of men and women and others. In modern sociological and psychological theories (Ruddick, 1995) the father/mother dualism is increasingly criticized. Motherhood is understood equally with fatherhood as a social relationship – built, created, negotiated in the process of daily parent-child interaction. Gender socialization "advantages" women over men, who acquire parenting skills more slowly, or later (never). Intergenerational transmission can be one of the ways to contribute to increasing the involvement of men in childcare and household care" (Bosý, 2011, p. 345-346).
According to the American Psychological Association (2009), the modern father comes in many forms. Today's father is no longer always the traditional married breadwinner and family disciplinarian. He can be single or married; externally employed or at home; homosexual or heterosexual; adoptive or stepparent; and a more than capable babysitter. Psychological research across families of all ethnic backgrounds suggests that fathers' affection and increased family involvement help support children's social and emotional development.'
It can be said that fatherhood can really be defined as a relationship between a man, that is, a father and his child. As stated by the American Psychological Association, it does not matter what the father is, whether he is his own but stepfather, single or married, etc. - the most important thing is that he should be a full-time father, willing, kind, caring, understanding, responsible, tolerant and, above all, loving. And just as motherhood and fatherhood went through changes and developments for centuries, so the fathers of the 21st century are going through the latest changes. What changes has the 21st century brought to fathers in their roles?
Changes in the role of the father in the 21st century
"One of the significant aspects of the changing role of the modern father is the departure from traditional expectations placed on fathers. In the past, fathers were considered primarily as the sole breadwinners and protectors of the family" (Cameron, 2023). However, today's fathers are no longer considered only breadwinners and protectors of the family. What other changes have occurred in the role of men as fathers?
Active but also emotional involvement in parenting
"Modern fathers are actively involved in their children's lives and take on a greater share of household duties and childcare. They are no longer just providers, but also caring and emotionally supportive caregivers. The rise of women in the workforce has contributed to the changing role of fathers. As more women pursue careers, fathers are beginning to share domestic and parenting responsibilities, creating a more equitable division of labor” (Cameron, 2023).
"However, fatherhood played a much more active role. In the past, fathers were considered more breadwinners and the mother was the rock of the family. Today, with everyone's crazy schedules and work-life balance, things need to get moving" (Bui, 2022). Foreman (in Bui, 2022) argues that with "the rise of dual-income households and more women entering the workforce, life for these families is starting to move at a faster pace. There are two work schedules to consider and two resources income, and when you combine that with the already hectic life that comes with raising children, fathers need to step up and be more than breadwinners. They need to take a much more active role in helping and mentoring children." This means being there physically for the child, providing for the family, and being there for him emotionally and mentally" (Bui, 2022).
"For a father to successfully help children and mentor, he needs a relationship that goes beyond an informal conversation. Yes, your child's physical health, grades and homework progress are important, but so are their mental health, dreams, fears, questions and ambitions. Fathers were portrayed as tough figures whose only responsibility revolved around being the breadwinner. Now fathers spend more time with their children physically, mentally and emotionally” (Bui, 2022). "Modern fathers are more involved in the emotional development of their children. They prioritize building a strong bond with their children and are actively involved in their social, emotional and cognitive growth” (Cameron, 2023).
The presence of the father in the family is important, but it is even more important that the father is also a real father to his children. He must be present in the family for the children and the woman not only physically but also mentally. It is important for all family members to function as a family. As the authors Bui and Cameron state, in today's world, when the family's income is ensured by the overwhelming majority of both parents, it is extremely important for the couple to set rules to cooperate, help each other in the household and also in raising children. Today, the man/father is no longer the only one who provides for the family from an economic point of view, as they used to be, and thus the responsibility not only for the household but also for the children is borne equally by both parents. However, the mother is the one who mostly stays at home with the child during the first months or years of the child's life and primarily takes care of its upbringing and development while the partner is at work, but even the father cannot neglect and make his role as a father easy, especially in today's busy world, when even a mother taking care of a child needs a lot of help from her partner, not only physically but especially psychologically. And just as the mother of the child needs the presence of the father of her child - that is, the partner, the child also needs the presence of the father. After all, it is said that the father is not the one who fathers the child, but the one who raises the child and takes care of it. Almost every child values their father's love, attention, tenderness and time with him much more than any toys or money. The child longs for the father's recognition, praise, love and, above all, his time.
Following the first change in the father's role, we also draw attention to the new economic trends that are part of today's family.
New economic trends
"One of the main influences on the father's role is actually an economic influence. Two to three centuries ago, the role of fathers was primarily to serve as breadwinners and mediators of moral values and religious education to their children. With urbanization and industrialization, work took fathers out of the home for the vast majority of the day" (Launder, 2023). At this time, fathers were the sole and main breadwinners of the family, women-mothers mostly took care of the children and their upbringing. Only over time, when women began to be more emancipated and had the desire but also the need to realize themselves in an area other than just the home, did they gradually begin to integrate more and more into the work process. "Between 1948 and 2001, according to the American Psychological Association, the percentage of working-age women nearly doubled—from less than 33 percent to more than 60 percent. Their increase in financial power has made paternal financial support less necessary for some families. Today's fathers have begun to take on roles that are diametrically opposed to those of previous generations" (Launder, 2023). For today's family, it is completely natural that both partners/parents work. In the past, this was not the case and, as already mentioned, the work was mainly done by a man who had an economic function in the family. Integration into the work process was good for women not only from a personal but also an economic point of view. Not only did the women help their family to improve their economic situation, but it also helped them personally and psychologically, when they could leave home for a certain period of time, change the environment, change the role of a caring mother to a woman who is needed and appreciated in the working environment as well, who can learn, grow and develop personally as well as career-wise. Fathers of the 21st century no longer have to fulfill the primary economic function of the family, but share it together with their partners, and thus the task of raising and caring for the child is naturally divided between both parents.
Changes in caregiving roles
"Historically, child development research (American Psychological Association, 2009) focused more on mothers' sensitivity to meeting their children's needs. However, in the last 20-30 years, research has increasingly focused on fathers. This is due to the increasing role played by modern fathers in caregiving. A study conducted by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) found that fathers tended to be more involved in caregiving when:
- worked fewer hours than other fathers,
- had positive characteristics of psychological adjustment (e.g. high self-esteem, lower levels of depression and hostility, and good coping with the main tasks of adulthood);
- mothers worked more hours than other mothers."
"Other research on the role of fathers suggests that the influence of a father's love on children's development is as great as that of a mother's love. A father's love helps children develop a sense of their place in the world, which helps their social, emotional and cognitive development and functioning. Additionally, children who receive more love from their fathers are less likely to struggle with behavioral or substance abuse problems” (American Psychological Association, 2009).
As the American Psychological Association (2009) states, "while still a relatively small part of all fathers who discovered the possibility of "staying at home" demonstrates a new type of patriarch who is primarily entrusted with care in the context of his family. In fact, the number of American stay-at-home dads is growing at a rapid rate. For many fathers, the decision to stay home with their children stems from:
- their wife's strong earning potential;
- their own desire to be the primary caregiver;
- shared reluctance together with the partner to allow someone else to raise their children (e.g. nanny)."
"The role of fathers in Great Britain has changed beyond recognition in the last 50 years. Today, fathers no longer want to be limited to the role of breadwinner. They want to be real co-parents who provide education and care to their children. This change is due in part to the rise of two-earner households, a decrease in hospital care after childbirth, and the absence of geographically close extended family, which requires the father to step in” (Machin, 2021).
As humans, we tend to believe that moms are instinctive parents, but dads have to learn. In fact, biological fathers are just as biologically equipped to parent as mothers. All new fathers experience a permanent drop in testosterone around the time of childbirth - in some cases by as much as a third. This decrease is crucial because it not only motivates the father to be an empathetic and sensitive hands-on parent, but also removes the inhibitory effect of high testosterone on bonding hormones, ensuring that the father receives a "healthy dose of chemicals" whenever he interacts with his child. Add to that brain changes that increase care, attention, empathy, and problem solving, and dad is just as much a biological phenomenon as mom. There is no more relegation for him to the role of secondary parent. He is a real co-parent" (Machin, 2021).
"Fathers build deep and strong bonds with their children, which are just as strong, but fundamentally different from those built between mother and child. Both moms and dads build their bonds based on nurturing, but the dad has an additional element of challenge, reflecting his role in his child's entry into the world outside the family. Regardless of culture, fathers are seen pushing the boundaries of development and exposing their children to risk and challenge, helping them build the mental and physical resilience they will need to survive in our rapidly changing and challenging world. And one of the most effective ways they do this is through play" (Machin, 2021).
"Due to this increased interaction, fathers have also changed in terms of their parenting methods. Rather, the role of strict enforcer has evolved into a parenting style that differs from fathers in the past. dr. Sanjay Juneja says: "I think that in the past, children were raised more by teaching than by cooperation. That said, it was more of a patriarchal approach, kids shouldn't do it, boys don't do it. If you want to be a winner, you have to do it. There wasn't much room for questions or considerations about how the child might have felt.' Today's fathers, often raised through teaching rather than cooperation, as Dr. Sanjay, they understand that this is an outdated method of teaching children. Yes, there is a time and place to be stern and instructive, but that should not be the right response. dr. Sanjay believes that we "should delve deeper into our children's personalities and uniqueness and develop a plan based on our observation." I feel that parenting is not about approaching things from the perspective of what winners do, but rather that you become successful when you parent in a way that is unique to your children and their personalities." Therefore, being a father is not only about physical presence" (Bui, 2022).
"Furthermore, fatherhood as a social construction in our cultural space is subject to various changes. In every historical epoch, there have been changes in the demands placed on fathers. The primary role of the father evolved from a "moral teacher" before the Industrial Revolution to a "breadwinner" (a father fulfilling an exclusively economic function) in the post-Industrial Revolution period. In the 1930s and 1940s, the "gender role" model came to the fore, only to be replaced by the "new caring father" in the 1970s (Morman, Floyd, 2006). The emergence of the latter model is closely related to the new definition of the gender roles of men and women, which occurs under the influence of women's (feminist) movements and subsequent men's movements (Men's studies). The mentioned historical concepts, as well as the often contradictory contemporary concepts, represent normative concepts of society, which in a given historical period summarize the dominant expectations of fathers regarding their activity within the family. However, these ideal-typical norms provide only certain "recommendations" and may differ to a large extent from the real participation of men in the family (Burgess, 2004). Despite the relatively significant social pressure of contemporary society on men regarding their involvement, in reality only a relatively low percentage of men participate equally with their partners in child care (Bútorová, 1996; Filadelfiaová, Kiczková, Szapuová, 2006). Participation in "pleasant" activities - playing, spending free time with children, or in some activities that are not traditionally connoted as "feminine" (shopping, taking children to school and kindergarten) is relatively balanced. However, there is a significant difference in participation in work that is "born" (ironing, washing, cooking, minor repairs and modifications in the home)" (Bosý, 2011, 346-347).
"The changing role of modern fathers is characterized by their increased involvement in parenting and household duties. Men are no longer expected to be the sole breadwinner, while women stay at home less. Couples swap traditional roles, with fathers staying at home and taking care of the children. Modern fathers are more playful and emotionally expressive, bridging the gap between their own interests and those of their children. They allow their children to explore business ideas and pursue their interests and passions. Fathers also have more flexibility in managing subjective parenting concepts and actively participate in activities such as various parenting meetings and daily tasks. This shift in the role of modern fathers has allowed parents to work together as a team to create a more balanced and fulfilling family dynamic” (Cameron, 2023).
Paternity leave
Paternity leave has slowly but surely become a reality in our country, and some fathers take full advantage of it. This trend has also started to be realized in our country, so fathers can take paternity leave in the range of 14 calendar days. As stated by Černegová (2022), "by taking paternity leave after the birth of a child, fathers do not get an extra 14 days off, because taking paternity leave shortens their potential maternity leave by 2 weeks." Therefore, if fathers use this option, the standard payment of "maternity" which lasts 28 weeks will be shortened by 2 weeks of already used paternity leave". We have thus joined other countries that offer the possibility of paternity leave for fathers. The UK is also one of 94 countries that offer statutory paternity leave, but they still have a long way to go to equality for parents. Employed fathers are entitled to two weeks' leave at the statutory rate of £149 a week. If you wish to stay on paternity leave for longer, you can apply for shared parental leave, where mothers "donate" part of their maternity leave to their partner, again at the statutory rate. However, this is not due to the often misrepresented reluctance on the part of fathers to take leave, but because few fathers can afford it. Activists are lobbying hard for the government to introduce a targeted system similar to that seen in Norway and Sweden, where men take an average of 16 weeks of paid leave" (Machin, 2021). Although we can observe an increased interest in paternity leave among fathers in various countries, they are not given much opportunity either by the employer or by the state, which provides not only a very short time but also little funding for fathers who would be interested in this possibility of leave. And so, in most countries, women stay on maternity leave more than men, mainly from a financial point of view - whether it concerns the amount of maternity/paternity leave or the total income of the family.
Conclusion
The article deals with some selected changes brought about by the development of fatherhood up to the 21st century. These changes are somewhat more pronounced and visible in society than they were in the 20th century. The most important change in the fathers of the 21st century can be considered their great active involvement in the care and upbringing of their children. Since the father had primarily an economic or so-called breadwinner function of the family, this function is not uncommon today. Therefore, the emotional and caring function comes to the fore much more, which, so to speak, is also related to paternity leave, which some fathers often take not (only) from an economic point of view, but mainly out of their own will and belief that they too want to be of benefit to their family and their offspring, and so they want to devote their time and love to them much more than just a few hours during the week when they come home from work. The change in this caring-emotional-active involvement in the care and upbringing of a child can be considered a very pleasant change in fatherhood, which, if maintained in our society, can bring positive changes to people's family and social life.
Author: Mgr. Zuzana Uličná
This text was created thanks to the support of the UGA project: II/6/2023: Attitudes towards fatherhood and their ethical contexts and thanks to the support of the VEGA project: 1/0158/23: Non-religious spiritual literacy: emergence, development in childhood and significance in adulthood.
List of references
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