The application context of projective techniques in the supervision of helping professions – challenges and limitations for research, theory, and practice

This theoretical study is one of the results of the scientific research project VEGA 1/0128/25, titled "Proposal for the Construction of an Evidence-Based Model for the Administration of the 'Animals' Projective Technique in the Context of Supervisory Practice within Helping Professions."

This theoretical study is one of the results of the scientific research project VEGA 1/0128/25, titled "Proposal for the Construction of an Evidence-Based Model for the Administration of the 'Animals' Projective Technique in the Context of Supervisory Practice within Helping Professions."

Introduction

In the contemporary clinical practice context, there is a clear and growing demand for new supervision techniques, placing projectivity at the forefront of supervisory discourse. Projective approaches are increasingly being examined and implemented with the aim of improving communication dynamics and deepening engagement during supervision meetings. Historically, the literature in supervision, as well as counseling, has primarily focused on “direct communication” techniques, creating a gap in the existence of specific supervisory approaches. This situation points to an urgent current need to actively explore, develop, and disseminate research on innovative and creative supervision approaches (Bradley et al., 2023).

In their classic understanding, projective techniques were primarily used in clinical psychology for diagnostic purposes, to examine unconscious dynamics and personality traits in individuals, especially children and adolescents. These tools served and still partially serve as valuable additions in clinical assessments and therapeutic interventions. They offer unique insights into inner worlds (Santilo et al., 2025).

In the context of supervision, however, the term “projective methods” largely also includes “creative,” “expressive,” or “artistic” techniques. These methods facilitate the externalization and exploration of inner experiences, thoughts, and feelings through nonverbal and symbolic means (Lis-Ron et al., 2025). Their primary utility in supervision lies in their ability to transcend purely verbal communication, which allows exploration of symbolic and unconscious contents that arise from both the supervision encounter and the supervisee’s inner world (Bradley et al., 2023). It is important to note that “projective methods,” in the traditional psychological context, refer to diagnostic tools. However, most relevant studies concerning “projective” or “creative” applications in supervision do not involve formal psychometric testing of the supervisee. Instead, they describe methods such as artistic creation, storytelling, and visualization, which enable symbolic expression and exploration of the supervisee’s clinical work and inner processes. This difference in semantics is key. This means that although traditional projective tests are diagnostic tools, the principles of projection and symbolic expression are used in “creative” or “expressive” methods in supervision. These methods are used to gain insight, support professional development, and facilitate process, rather than to provide formal psychometric assessment of the supervisee’s personality or pathology. This essential distinction ensures that the understanding of projective techniques in the supervision contexts presented here addresses the implicit need for supervisory applications and acknowledges their broader definition.

The supervision applied in these ways is often rooted in theories of “constructivist supervision,” which is a framework emphasizing the active construction of knowledge through personal expressive expression (Lis-Ron et al., 2025). Within this paradigm, the act of expressive creation itself is considered a meaningful, constructive process that naturally facilitates learning and the development of new insights. This approach allows individuals to perceive information and experiences in new ways—more meaningful, more personal, and more experiential—thereby supporting deeper understanding and new learning. Reflection and metaphorical thinking are central to this process. The product becomes a tangible metaphor for complex thoughts (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).

Integrating projective processes into supervision offers a unique way to transcend purely verbal discourse, enabling exploration of symbolic and unconscious experiences that emerge in the supervision session (Bradley et al., 2023). In addition, symbolic methods such as the use of metaphors and analogies are actively used in reflective supervision to deepen understanding and facilitate deep self-reflection. The phenomenon of “spontaneous symbolism” can arise organically during supervision, manifesting as visual images, “heard” phrases or words, feelings, or affects. Effective navigation of these symbolic expressions requires a supervisor who is prepared, open, and willing to tolerate a state of “not-knowing,” which allows the symbols to unfold and reveal their relevance for the supervisee’s work (Meekums, 2007).

The repeated emphasis that creative and symbolic methods offer a way to examine aspects of the helping professional’s work and experiences that are difficult or impossible to express verbally (Lis-Ron et al., 2025) suggests this is not merely an alternative communication style. Rather, it addresses the basic limitation of language in capturing complex emotional, implicit, and unconscious dynamics. This points to a causal relationship in which the inherent limitations of verbal processing of complex emotional and unconscious material require the use of symbols present in the application of projective techniques in supervision. These not only “improve” communication; they enable a different kind of communication and processing that is otherwise inaccessible. They often become a core, and not merely peripheral, component of supervision.

Overview of supervision models including projective elements

Several “modern” supervision models, as identified by Carroll (Carroll & Tholstrup, 2004), demonstrate a natural affinity for incorporating projective elements.

• Narrative model: This approach aims to equip supervisees with the ability to create analogous justifications for their profession by using the inherent power of words, stories, and metaphors. The supervisor plays a key role, using incisive questions and “word plays” to facilitate the supervisee’s empathy with client problems and support shifts in their attitudes and views (Schavel et al., 2018). This model seamlessly aligns with projective storytelling techniques, such as the Story Scribble (SST) technique (Bradley et al., 2023).
• Experiential model: This model focuses on the immediacy of the present moment and the current problem, emphasizing cultivation of equality, empathy, and acceptance within the supervisory relationship. Its inherent focus on direct experience makes it highly suitable for integrating experiential exercises and various art activities (Schavel et al., 2018).
• Dynamic model: This approach delves into past experiences of the supervisee and client in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of their dynamics. Only after this historical analysis does it focus on developing solutions to problematic situations, taking into account both content and relational aspects of the professional helping process (Schavel et al., 2018). Symbolic art can effectively support this model by providing a means to explore and process unconscious dynamics.
• Systemic model: This model adopts a holistic systems approach, integrating diverse theories and scientific disciplines to address the supervisee’s problems (Schavel et al., 2018).

Such emphasis on projective techniques as needs-based alternatives to traditional supervision models indicates a broader shift in how supervision is conceptually understood. It goes beyond a purely didactic or cognitive-behavioral approach toward more holistic, relational, and affect-focused models. Their integration signals a paradigmatic and methodological evolution in supervision. It reflects a shift toward approaches that are more person-centered, experientially rich, and recognize the complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and unconscious factors in professional practice. They become a key component of modern supervision (Bradley et al., 2023).

Some projective techniques in supervision

• El Duende One-Canvas Process Painting (EDPP): This is a structured model of group supervision in which supervisees engage in artistic creation on a shared individual canvas during each meeting. Over time, the evolving canvas becomes a dynamic visual representation of the issues being addressed. This model, inspired by the concept of “El duende” (a mysterious, felt but invisible force), supports exploration of implicit elements influencing the helping process. Research indicates that EDPP increases the perceived value of art, projection, and creativity in supervision, has a positive impact on the supervisory alliance, and supports greater openness to experience. It has shown a positive effect on the development of professional identity (Bradley et al., 2023).
• Response Art: This technique involves creating visual, creative, artistic production. It is considered a valuable method for integrating art into supervision because it supports a deeper understanding of clinical relationships and serves as a powerful way to explore topics from multiple perspectives. Response art is widely used in practice and is adaptable to both individual and online supervision formats (Bradley et al., 2023).
• Conceptualization of cases through metaphorical drawing: Supervisees are guided to create metaphorical drawings representing their clinical cases, after which a structured process of reflection follows. This technique requires a high level of cognitive synthesis of complex information, reflecting the process of reaching clear and integrated understanding of the case. Studies suggest that case drawings are often more effective for conceptualizing and presenting cases than purely verbal methods and are personally more satisfying for supervisees (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Mandalas: Using mandalas (drawings in circles) in supervision is advocated for their ability to increase supervisees’ self-awareness, broaden their understanding of complex cases, and provide a calming, stress-reducing effect (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Visual Journaling: This technique combines experiential art activity with reflective writing, often using spiral sketchbooks. It is a powerful tool for facilitating insight into the supervisee’s personal and professional self, as well as into their clients. Visual journals offer support and space for emotional expression, help process difficult experiences, and contribute to stress reduction (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Art-making to explore transference and countertransference: Engaging in art-making can illuminate the complex phenomena of transference and countertransference within the therapeutic relationship. Techniques may include having supervisees draw the professional-client relationship or create in response to work with a client. This process leads to increased self-awareness and a deeper understanding of these key dynamics (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Art-making and diary writing to explore the supervisor-supervisee relationship: This model involves both the supervisor and supervisee engaging in art-making and diary writing in parallel, regularly exchanging their creations. It is highly effective in stimulating self-reflection and enriching the interpersonal dynamics of the supervisory relationship, enabling faster access to key issues (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Collage technique: In this method, supervisees select images and words from magazines to symbolically represent clinical situations for discussion. The supervisor then facilitates a guided reflection process through exploratory questions, making the finished artwork the focal point of intensive discussion and improved open communication (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Bilateral art: This technique involves engaging both the dominant and non-dominant hand to create images in response to opposing cognitions or feelings. It is effective in supporting empathy, opening communication channels, and facilitating the exploration of perception within the supervisory relationship, often revealing new insights and explicitly uncovering parallel processes (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).
• Sandtray Consultation: This intervention involves the supervisee observing the supervisor conducting a client session using a sandtray. For the supervisee, observing this process can reduce anxiety, create the needed distance to accurately assess client dynamics. It can lead to greater trust and less self-criticism (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011).

A recurring pattern across many projective techniques is the creation of an external, tangible product. This act of creation, followed by reflection on the artifact, fundamentally changes the nature of the supervisory dialogue. It suggests a causal mechanism: the externalization of inner experiences (such as thoughts, feelings, client dynamics, or countertransference) into a physical form (a drawing, painting, or sandtray scene) allows for their objectification. Once externalized, material can be observed, discussed, and manipulated with a degree of distance that is often impossible when material remains purely internal or verbally expressed. This psychological distance facilitates critical analysis, reduces emotional overload, and supports the emergence of new perspectives and insights. These strategies are highly effective in fostering supervisee self-awareness and awareness of others, stimulate “thinking outside the box,” allow supervisees access to their inherent strengths and intuition, and significantly improve the overall supervisory relationship. Their effectiveness is especially pronounced if interventions are carefully selected to respect the supervisee’s specificities and motivations, ensuring maximum impact and ethical application (Purswell & Stulmaker, 2015).

Although many of the described techniques come from therapeutic contexts, their use in supervision is distinct. Supervision is not explicitly therapy for the supervisee. These techniques are adapted for specific goals: strengthening professional identity, managing countertransference, improving case conceptualization, and addressing burnout—all directly relevant to professional role and development of the helping professional. This means that the field of supervision is “maturing” and moving from simple “using projectivity and creativity in supervision” to developing supervision-specific interventions. For example, EDPP is presented as a supervisory model, not only as an art-therapeutic technique. The emphasis is consistently placed on the supervisory work nature and the supervisee’s professional development, and not on the supervisee’s personal pathology (Lis-Ron et al., 2025).

Impact and contributions to the development and practice of the supervisee

Creative methods integrated into supervision are key to supporting professional development and significantly improving supervisees’ understanding. Specific models, such as EDPP, have shown a positive impact on the development of professional identity (Lis-Ron et al., 2025). A key role of the supervisor is to actively lead professionals toward robust development of their unique professional identity, a process significantly supported by creative engagement (Schavel et al., 2018).

Supervision strategies based on projective techniques are highly effective in increasing supervisees’ self-awareness regarding their inner processes and interactions with others (Bradley et al., 2023). Such an approach is valuable for supporting awareness of transference and countertransference phenomena and helps supervisees distinguish their own feelings from those of their clients (Lis-Ron et al., 2025). The act of creation in supervision directly contributes to increased self-awareness, which in turn leads to deeper understanding and more effective management of these dynamic processes (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011). Using tools such as vision boards may, for example, specifically contribute to increased self-awareness among beginning counseling students, thereby helping develop their potential (Tipton, 2024).

Supervision techniques grounded in projectivity and creativity are deliberately designed to cultivate and instill in supervisees a strong capacity for reflection (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011). Creative strategies actively support “thinking outside the box” (Bradley et al., 2023). Reflective supervision is considered essential for ensuring effective, ethically sound, and culturally sensitive mental health services, and it fundamentally supports practitioners’ reflexivity (Dawson & Chunga, 2023). Reflection is a key component of professional development in helping professions, indicating a strong, non-random relationship. The causal link lies in projective approaches providing a concrete stimulus for reflection. Instead of strictly verbal recall of a case, the supervisee can reflect on their artwork, projection, or story that contains symbolic representations of their inner experience and material. This process transforms abstract inner experiences into tangible forms that can be more effectively analyzed and integrated, deepening understanding and supporting professional growth.

The analyzed group of techniques offers significant support in navigating complex ethical dilemmas, processing grief and loss, and handling difficulties. It allows professionals to reframe perspectives, shift viewpoints, externalize intense emotions, and reach deeper understanding of demanding experiences (Bradley et al., 2023). Creativity-based techniques are particularly effective at reducing stress (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011). Reflective supervision has been shown to positively affect supervisees’ self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and their ability to cope with workload (Dawson & Chunga, 2023). Experiential role-plays and visualization techniques are also used in supervision for burnout prevention and intervention (Schavel et al., 2018).

Challenges, limitations, and ethical considerations

Concerns about the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability, validity) of traditional projective tools have stimulated ongoing debates in clinical psychology. These techniques remain valuable for accessing individuals’ inner worlds. Nevertheless, in a large number of studies, detailed psychometric evaluations are lacking and the overall methodological quality of research in this area is often rated as moderately low (Santillo et al., 2025). It is therefore important to recall that the primary application of projective techniques in supervision is not intended for formal psychometric assessment or diagnosis of the supervisee. Instead, their value lies in facilitating self-awareness, deep reflection, and exploration of complex material and inner dynamics (Lis-Ron et al., 2025). They are used for process-oriented goals, not for formal assessment of the supervisee. The projective element in supervision is about revealing inner states for discussion and developmental growth, not for formal diagnosis or categorization of the supervisee’s personality.

Despite increasing interest in both projective techniques and supervision itself, empirical evidence remains markedly limited. It suffers from methodological inconsistency, which underscores an urgent need for more rigorous, structured, and rigorous evaluations in research (Vagnini et al., 2024). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between creative self-efficacy and measures of creativity found moderate correlation and revealed substantial variability across studies. This inconsistency was partly attributed to the different types of creativity measures used (Haase et al., 2018). In addition, systematic reviews of art therapy studies have pointed to major methodological limitations, including generally low research quality, inability to clearly define “art,” and inability to provide explicit evidence of application (Van Lith, 2018). This suggests a significant gap between research and practice: practitioners integrate these methods based on perceived effectiveness and anecdotal evidence, while strict empirical validation lags behind. This is a common challenge in qualitative and art-based research, where quantification and standardization may be inherently difficult. The report should emphasize the urgent need for more robust and methodologically reliable research to overcome this gap, including clearer definitions, standardized protocols, and suitable outcome measures.

The application of projective techniques in supervision naturally brings with it intrinsic ethical concerns that need careful attention (Deaver & Shiflett, 2011). A basic ethical principle is that supervision is not therapy for the supervisee. For this reason, reflective discussions must maintain clear boundaries and should not intrude into the supervisee’s “private self.” Maintaining safe and professional boundaries is paramount. Supervisors are responsible for being fully aware of potential countertransference issues and ensuring ethical and competent use of these approaches (Purswell & Stulmaker, 2015). As we have noted multiple times, projective techniques by their nature invite deeper emotional engagement and can reveal very sensitive personal content (Bradley et al., 2023). Although this capacity supports deep insight and strengthens the supervisory relationship, it also brings substantial risks if ethical boundaries are not maintained rigorously. The causal relationship is that the very strength of these methods in accessing implicit and unconscious material requires heightened ethical vigilance.

Implications

For practice/

• Encourage supervisors to intentionally integrate a range of creative and expressive methods into their supervision practice, including the use of projective techniques, while emphasizing that these should be carefully tailored to the unique developmental levels and specific needs of each supervisee.
• Emphasis must be placed on establishing and maintaining clear ethical guidelines and professional boundaries when using these techniques. This requirement is crucial for ensuring supervisee psychological safety, preventing role drift, and maintaining the integrity of the supervisory relationship.
• Ongoing professional development of supervisors in effective, competent, and ethical use of creative and projective techniques is essential for expanding their skilled practice.

For research

• There is an urgent challenge for more rigorous, methodologically reliable empirical studies—including systematic reviews, qualitative research, and randomized controlled trials—to robustly verify the effectiveness and mechanisms of action of such techniques.
• Future research should prioritize clearly defining specific projective interventions, standardizing their protocols, and identifying targeted outcomes to build a stronger evidence base.
• Cross-cultural research is vital to examine how these methods are adapted, perceived, and effective in different cultural contexts, including deeper and broader exploration of the local context, to build on existing emerging practices.

Conclusion

Projective techniques in the supervision of helping professionals comprise a diverse range of expressive approaches. They are increasingly recognized for their deep ability to facilitate deeper insights, increase self-awareness, and support comprehensive professional development by overcoming the limits of purely verbal communication. Key benefits from integrating these approaches include strengthened professional identity, improved clinical understanding, effective management of transference and countertransference, and support for robust reflective practice. Nevertheless, it is important to reflect on critical challenges in their application—the ongoing debates regarding psychometric properties of traditional projective tools and the prevailing problem of methodological inconsistency in broader research. The importance of strict ethical considerations is also essential.
The tension between widely perceived benefits and growing acceptance of projective techniques in supervision and the acknowledged lack of rigorous empirical evidence creates a strong demand for future research. This points to the necessary development toward “evidence-based projectivity” in supervision—systematic study of intuitive, experientially rich procedures to understand how and why they work and for whom. This scientific rigor is crucial for their broader acceptance and integration into supervisor education.

Author: doc. PhDr. Bohuslav Kuzyšin, PhD. et PhD.
Department of Christian Anthropology and Social Work
Theological Faculty of Orthodox Theology
Prešov University in Prešov

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