Pregraduate, graduate and postgraduate education of social workers

The primary motivation for writing this contribution was the questions we encountered in the academic environment: “What exactly do the terms pregraduate, graduate, and postgraduate higher education mean? What is the difference between them? Is it linguistically and substantively correct to designate master’s education as pregraduate?” In seeking answers, we identified two fundamental facts: 1. at the international level there is no uniformity in this terminology, which is connected to both horizontal and vertical diversity, that is, a) different systems of higher education in individual countries and b) historical development and changes in terminology within a given country, especially under the influence of globalization trends (in Europe especially the so-called Bologna Process); 2. within the Slovak academic environment these terms are used inconsistently, usually depending on the lecturer’s prior understanding. These findings led us to systematically examine the use of these expressions in higher education systems in selected countries (USA, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic), with specific focus on the field in which the authors of the article work. The main aim is to analyze the terminology of pregraduate, graduate and postgraduate education with application to social work and to propose a unified terminological concept in this field. The partial aims are to identify qualification requirements for social work practice in the examined countries and the systemic tools for standardization and quality of higher education in this field.

Higher education in the USA is distinguished into pregraduate (undergraduate) and graduate (graduate) levels. Pregraduate programs correspond to bachelor’s studies. They are usually focused on obtaining general education through a broad range of subjects, from humanities to natural and technical sciences. Bachelor’s study generally lasts four years. After the first two years, students choose subjects that will determine their further study and career choice. The academic degree associated with pregraduate study is bachelor.

After completing pregraduate study, in the American school system further education is referred to as graduate study (graduated study), which includes master’s and doctoral studies. In some English-speaking countries (e.g. Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland, etc.) terminology often classifies education following bachelor-level study as postgraduate study (postgraduate study). This includes master’s study, doctoral study, and additional postgraduate courses linked, for example, to professional or specialized education. We will focus in particular on the study in the United Kingdom.

In the USA, master’s study is highly specialized, and far fewer students enter it than pregraduate study. It usually lasts two to three years (at least one year). After successfully completing required courses and writing and defending the final thesis, graduates typically receive the academic degree master (master), often with an explicit field designation (e.g. Master of Social Work). Doctoral study is also highly specialized. A condition for obtaining the doctoral degree is completion of required coursework and the writing and defense of a doctoral dissertation based on original research. The most common title is Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy).

In the United States, social workers are graduates of schools of social work at bachelor, master or doctoral level who use their knowledge and skills in providing social services to clients (Barker, 2003, p. 410). The qualification prerequisite for this profession is therefore bachelor’s (BSW), master’s (MSW) or doctoral education in social work (Ph.D. or D.S.W.). In June 2015, there were 506 accredited bachelor-level (thus pregraduate) social work programs in the USA (15 candidate programs), and 238 master’s-level (graduate) programs (17 candidates) (compare CSWE, 2015). A social worker with pregraduate bachelor-level education is considered a “generalist” social worker, with master’s education as a specialist or advanced generalist social worker. A person with doctoral education is considered a researcher, educator, or social policy analyst.

In individual US states, in addition to higher education, social workers may be required to be registered or licensed. In the United States, licensing systems were introduced in 1973. Since 1994, licensing is required in 47 states and registration in six states. Some states do not require registration. Similarly, Tomeš (2010, p. 22-23) states that “many states in the USA protect the title of social worker through status or legislation. Most states specify the type of social work for which a license or approval is granted, e.g. clinical practice, field practice, etc. Procedures, programs and bodies competent for registration differ by state. To obtain a license or approval, a social worker must pass exams of the Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB), which has authority across the USA except California, which has its own licensing system. Licensing exams differ for work at the bachelor’s or master’s level. Only about 75% of candidates pass the exams for master’s-level work. Several non-state organizations offer pre-licensure practice, test preparation, and related support.”

In response to the standardization and quality of social work study, The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) was established in 1952 and remains responsible for educational standards, quality with respect to preparing competent social workers for practice, and accreditation of bachelor’s and master’s social work programs at individual schools in the USA” (Mátel, Schavel, 2014, p. 45). Within it, the accreditation commission (CSWE's Commission on Accreditation, COA) is important and is responsible for shaping and updating accreditation standards as well as monitoring compliance at candidate programs. Very helpful for individual schools is the handbook that guides institutions through the whole process of setting educational standards according to accreditation needs – The CSWE Handbook of Social Work Accreditation Policies and Procedures (Handbook) for the 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards. This handbook is revised regularly, with the latest version published in 2012 (CSWE, 2012b). The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is responsible for the practical accreditation process. The core document is the educational standards themselves for bachelor’s and master’s social work programs – the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards known by the acronym EPAS. Its aim is to foster academic excellence in social worker preparation by ensuring that required competencies are achieved during study. They seek to ensure that accredited programs are comparable and retain essential curricular characteristics while also being sufficiently flexible to accommodate diversity. EPAS describes four core curriculum design features (CSWA, 2012a): 1. mission and educational program goals that follow professional objectives and core professional values (these are part of the US ethical code); 2. explicit curriculum, consisting of the formal structure of the program and courses designed to prepare professionals for general social work practice, professional accountability and key competencies (BSW curriculum) or advanced specialized practice (MSW curriculum); 3. implicit curriculum – concerning the external learning environment in which the educational program is delivered, with educational culture particularly important; 4. assessment of education, where data provide an essential basis for change and innovation.

PhD programs in social work in the USA are overseen by The Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work (GADE). Its goal is to promote excellence in doctoral social work study. Currently, over 80 programs exist at American universities, which can be classified into three types: 1. exclusively focused on social work; 2. dual with another field, combining social work doctoral study with a master’s program in another discipline; 3. interdisciplinary – part of the courses are delivered by departments from other fields. Like CSWE, GADE also publishes a guide for universities titled Quality Guidelines for PhD Programs in Social Work, with the current version issued in 2013 (GADE, 2013).

The European Higher Education Area

Changes in higher education systems in the last two decades have brought new trends in Europe, including internationalization of higher education. These are associated with increasing demands for quality assurance in this form of education. Creating a common European higher education space is a process currently known as the Bologna Process, whose formal start is usually dated to 1998. That year, ministers responsible for higher education from France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom met at the Sorbonne University in Paris to sign the Joint Declaration on harmonizing the creation of a European higher education system, known as the Sorbonne Declaration. In its final statement the declaration called on the other countries of the EU and additional European countries and their universities to join efforts to strengthen Europe’s position globally by continually modernizing education for citizens of their countries. In June 1999, 31 ministers responsible for higher education from 29 European countries met in Bologna and signed the declaration establishing a European higher education space, known as the Bologna Declaration. The Slovak Republic has been a signatory from the outset (represented by then Minister of Education Milan Ftáčnik). This became the foundational document for creating a general framework for modernization and reform of European higher education.

The Bologna Declaration endorsed two main levels (cycles) of higher education, naming them in English the same as in the USA: undergraduate (pregraduate) and graduate (graduate). Access to the second cycle should be allowed only after successful completion of the first cycle, lasting at least three years. The second cycle should lead to a master’s and/or doctoral level (The Bologna Declaration, 1999). As a result of the Bologna Process, in many European countries bachelor study programs (including stand-alone bachelor programs) were introduced where they had previously been absent. In several countries doctoral study had already required prior master’s education; in other countries this condition was introduced gradually. “Within the Bologna Process, the three-cycle structure of higher education was, in theory, fully introduced or at least introduced on a broad scale in nearly all institutions and programs in most states, with exceptions in certain fields such as medicine, architecture and engineering, which in some states remained outside this new structure” (EACEA, 2009, p. 9). Within this three-cycle framework, the terminology of educational cycles/levels was adjusted to: undergraduate (pregraduate 1st cycle, bachelor education), graduate (graduate 2nd cycle, master education), and postgraduate (postgraduate 3rd cycle, doctoral education).

The Bologna reform of European higher education, introduced from 1998 onward, recommended use of the title master, which in other countries also replaced previous doctoral or diploma titles. “It seems that the second-cycle master model with 120 ECTS credits (2 years) has gained broader support, now prevailing in 29 states/regions analyzed. Looking at combinations of first- and second-cycle programs, the 180 + 120 ECTS credits (3+2 years) two-cycle structure is the most generally accepted model. It is the most prominent model in 17 states and also used in another 22 states where no unique model has been established” (EACEA, 2009, p. 9).

At present there is strong emphasis on the quality of higher education. In the European context, one recognized authority accepted by 27 countries is ENQA, the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, whose members are national institutions ensuring quality of higher education (e.g. the Accreditation Commission in the Czech Republic, the British Accreditation Council and the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in the United Kingdom). Slovakia does not have full membership in the organization. The framework systemic document is the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ENQA, 2010).

Given the close link between education and professional practice, an important systemic document is the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF), established in 2008. It is a recommendation of the European Union. By nature it is a common European reference system linking national qualification systems of various countries, functioning as a translation tool to make qualifications more transparent and understandable across different countries and systems in Europe. It has two main goals: promoting citizen mobility between countries and facilitating lifelong learning. It contains eight reference levels, described in terms of learning outcomes and specified in three categories—knowledge, skills and competences. This indicates that qualifications in various combinations cover a broad range of outcomes, including theoretical knowledge, practical and technical skills, and social competences, in which the ability to cooperate with others is essential (EQF, 2009). On this basis, the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic developed the National Qualifications Framework of the Slovak Republic (2012). Levels 6–8 in Slovakia correspond to first-cycle higher education (level 6), second-cycle higher education (level 7) and third-cycle higher education (level 8). The national framework is understood as a tool for bridging EQF reference levels with levels of the national education system, which is important for recognition and comparability of qualifications.

Education of Social Workers in the United Kingdom

The higher education system in the United Kingdom is not uniform; the Scottish system differs from other parts of the country (England, Northern Ireland and Wales). An important fact is that universities in the UK are not part of the state educational system, and therefore study there is tuition-based. Only in Scotland is bachelor’s study free of charge. A completed secondary education is the basic condition for admission to the first level of higher education.

Bachelor’s study is, as in the USA, referred to as pregraduate (undergraduate degree / first degree). In England, Northern Ireland and Wales it lasts three years, and in Scotland four years. Some specialized programs (e.g. medicine, dentistry, or architecture) are longer and may last five to seven years. Within bachelor study, different levels can be distinguished. The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (2008, FHEQ) distinguishes three levels of pregraduate study, usually corresponding to each year of bachelor study. FHEQ level 4 = first year of study (Undergraduate Certificate); FHEQ level 5 = second year (Undergraduate Diploma); FHEQ level 6 = third year (Undergraduate Advanced Diploma). These can also be offered as separate shorter courses.

Postgraduate courses (postgraduate course / second degree) correspond to our master’s education. They build on bachelor study and usually last 1–2 years, or two years in Scotland. Within the FHEQ this corresponds to FHEQ level 7, the postgraduate study level (Postgraduate Certificate or Diploma, Master’s Degree). Doctoral study corresponds to FHEQ level 8 (Doctoral Degrees).

Since 1975, professional education has been required in the UK to practice social work. Originally, secondary school education and obtaining certification were sufficient—the Certificate of Qualification in Social Work (Tomeš, 2010). According to Levicka (in Tokárová, 2003), a social worker in the UK needed to obtain at least a DipSW (Diploma in Social Work). Required qualification for social work practice could be obtained in two equivalent ways: via professional training (linked to practice) and via academic education at higher schools. This was no longer the case from 2003, when the minimum standard became pregraduate bachelor-level education in social work, completed with BA, BSc or BSW degrees offered by British higher education institutions (universities or Colleges). Education at the diploma social worker level, which began in 1991, ended definitively in 2009.

Pregraduate higher education in social work lasts three years, or four years in Scotland, and is completed with a bachelor’s degree in social sciences (BSc) or bachelor’s degree in social work (BSW). For example, at the university in Edinburgh, the first two years are generally directed toward general social science knowledge. They include introductions to social policy and social work practice, its history, place in society, and key research studies in the field. Students who do not wish to specialize in professional practice in social work may continue toward a BSc qualification. For the others, the 3rd and 4th years prepare for practice. More than half of the studies are spent in practice settings (in public administration, the non-profit sector, or the private sector), where students’ work is supervised by a qualified educator. The postgraduate master’s program is usually two years and ends with an examination and the title Master of Social Work (MSW). Applicants can also enter it with a bachelor’s degree in another field. Candidates are nevertheless expected to have practical work experience with users of social services in the voluntary or private sector. Given high demand, entrance exams are often held. Doctoral study ends with the title doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) or doctor of social work (Doctor of Social Work, DSW). According to the Health and Care Professions Council list in the UK, 236 educational and training social work programs currently exist.

Levicka (in Tokárová, 2003) stated that education of social workers in the UK is the most centrally organized in all of Europe. From 1970 to 2001 the Central Council for Education and Training of Social Work set so-called competence criteria, i.e. conditions schools had to meet to offer social work education. The criteria set minimum educational standards (content, amount of practical instruction, etc.). According to Oláh, Schavel et al. (2009), the graduate profile matched practice needs. A social worker was prepared and competent to perform the following tasks: a) communicate and engage; b) assess and plan; c) support and help with self-sufficiency; d) intervene and provide services; e) work within organizations; f) develop professional social competencies.

Tomeš (2010) in his study states that in the 21st century the British government moved toward regulating social work education. In 2000 it set minimum knowledge levels students must achieve, and monitoring of outcomes was assigned to the independent agency Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. In 2001 it set National Occupational Standards for Social Work. These define what social workers should do and what students of social work should learn. These standards remain in force in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. In England they were replaced by two documents: 1. The College of Social Work, a non-governmental independent organization, produced the Professional Capabilities Framework (PCF), which describes requirements for social workers at all career levels; 2. the state Health and Care Professions Council produced Standards of Proficiency – Social workers (SOP), mandatory for registered organizations (2012), setting what a social worker should know and understand when first entering practice (Harris, White, 2013). The Health and Care Professions Council has state authority over regulation of healthcare professions, psychologists and social workers (16 professions in total), including educational standards. A key document for education is Standards of education and training (2014), which includes even the minimum standard for bachelor-level social work education in England.

Education of Social Workers in the Czech Republic

Currently, higher education in the Czech Republic is governed by Act No. 111/1998 Sb. on Higher Education. In the Czech Republic, higher education institutions are distinguished as university and non-university institutions. A university may offer all types of study programs, while a non-university institution may offer only bachelor and master programs and does not have faculties. They are further classified as public, private and state institutions (military or police). Higher education institutions can educate only within accredited study programs and lifelong learning programs. As in Slovakia, the Accreditation Commission plays an important role in the higher education system. Its task is to oversee quality in higher education, and comprehensively assess educational, scientific, research, developmental, innovative, artistic and creative activities of universities (§ 84 of Act No. 111/1998 Sb.).

The bachelor program focuses on preparation for professional practice and for study in a master program. Standard length is at least three and at most four years. Study ends with a state final examination, typically including defense of a bachelor thesis. Graduates receive the academic title bachelor. Master-level education and the master title are obtained in the Czech Republic after a 1–3-year program if it follows a bachelor program, or a 4–6-year study if pursued as a stand-alone program at a university or other higher school. It is focused on acquisition of theoretical knowledge based on current scientific advances and on mastering their application and developing capabilities for creative work. As in Slovakia, after obtaining the master title it is possible to complete a rigorous examination and obtain the “small doctorate.” In humanities, pedagogical and social sciences this is the title Doctor of Philosophy (PhDr.), placed before the name (see § 46 of Act No. 111/1998 Sb.).

Postgraduate study is understood as doctoral study and attainment of the doctoral title (e.g. philosophiæ doctor, Ph.D.). The doctoral study program is focused on scientific research and independent creative work in scientific or developmental areas. Standard duration is at least three and at most four years. It ends with a doctoral exam and defense of a dissertation, which demonstrate readiness and ability for independent research work. Graduates receive the academic title “doctor” abbreviated Ph.D., placed after the name (see § 47 of Act No. 111/1998 Sb.).

From a linguistic perspective, it is noteworthy that doctoral study is explicitly labeled postgraduate (see § 98(1)(c) of Act No. 111/1998 Sb.), which historically derives from terminology used during the communist period (see Act No. 49/1967 Zb.; § 22 of Act No. 172/1990 Sb.). In Czech, graduovat means to receive an academic rank. It is derived from Latin graduare and noun gradus (rank, degree). In the broadest sense, postgraduální means “following completion of higher education” (see Rejzek, 2012), which before the Bologna Process meant after completion of diploma (master’s) study.

In the Czech Republic, the term social worker is defined legislatively in Act No. 108/2006 Sb. on social services, as amended. Under this law, professional conditions for a social worker are legal capacity, good character, health suitability and professional competence according to that law. Professional competence for social work includes: a) higher professional education obtained by completing an accredited educational program under special legislation in fields focused on social work and social pedagogy, social pedagogy, social and humanitarian work, social work, social-legal work, charity and social work; b) higher education gained in an accredited bachelor, master or doctoral program focused on social work, social policy, social pedagogy, social care (sociální péči), social pathology, law or special pedagogy; c) completion of accredited educational courses in areas listed in a and b totaling at least 200 hours and practice in social work for at least 5 years, if completed higher education in a field not listed under b; d) completion of accredited educational courses in areas listed in a and b totaling at least 200 hours and practice in social work for at least 10 years, if completed secondary education with a matura exam in social-legal studies, completed by 31.12.1998. Professional competence to provide social services in institutional care settings of the healthcare sector is also granted to social workers and health-social workers who have obtained a license for healthcare professions under special legislation (see § 110 of Act No. 108/2006 Z. z.). This still-valid provision in the Czech Republic in practice allows social work to be performed also without higher education—thus through higher vocational education (VOŠ) with a non-academic title of certified specialist (DiS), specifically certified social worker. It is also important that Czech legislation allowed a person who successfully completed VOŠ to proceed directly to higher years of accredited bachelor programs in universities in case of interest in bachelor studies. A more serious issue is that a social worker need not have university education specifically in social work; other fields may also qualify, such as social pedagogy, special policy, social policy, and others. According to Křišťan and Bednář (in Klimentová et al., 2012, p. 21), “a trend in the Czech Republic is also to specify social work as a distinct profession and to separate it from other professions (health professionals, teachers, psychologists) that are active in various social services.” No legislative changes have occurred so far.

Despite these nuances, in the Czech Republic social work is properly studied in accredited bachelor, master, and doctoral programs at universities, either in full-time format for day students or in a combined format for external students. Bachelor study is 3 years, master study 2 years and doctoral study 3 years. For example, at the Faculty of Social Studies of Masaryk University in Brno, social policy and social work is a study field within the study program Social policy and social work. At this university, bachelor study in social work is focused on understanding and mastering current approaches and methods of social intervention in social work. It also addresses organizations that perform these interventions. The student becomes familiar with methods of practical social work with individuals, social groups and communities. They learn about creating and implementing social services policy programs and methods for evaluating their effectiveness. They are introduced to the current state of social legislation. Through study of research methods, students gain skills needed for practically applicable reflection on clients’ life situations and ways of coping. Graduates of the subsequent master’s program in social work gain, in continuity with bachelor knowledge and capabilities, the ability to reflect and evaluate problem-solving, life situations and to carry out systemic measures or case interventions, including managing dilemmas. They learn to independently design system-oriented interventions, coordinate them, implement and evaluate effectiveness. A list of Czech higher education institutions can be found on the web page of Sociální revue (2015).

A key actor in ensuring education quality in social work in the Czech Republic is the Association of Educators in Social Work (ASVSP). It was established in 1993 and brings together institutions (schools) providing at least three years of postgraduate education in the social field. ASVSP’s long-term goal is to improve the quality of social work education and thereby contribute to improving both educational offerings and social work service performance in the Czech Republic. ASVSP sees as its decisive tool the creation of Minimal Standards for Education in Social Work and publication of the Czech-Slovak journal Sociální práce / Sociálna práca. The minimum standards are an open document that is regularly developed and evaluated. They are also important in the consultation process, which supports schools with advisory and evaluative functions regarding education quality in social work. Their importance is also in accreditation. In 2003, they became the basis for criteria used by the Accreditation Commission of the Czech Republic for evaluating bachelor and master programs. Similar criteria also underlie the Accreditation Commission for higher vocational education (Křišťan, Bednářa in Klimentová et al., 2012).

Education of Social Workers in Slovakia

Currently, higher education in the Slovak Republic is governed by Act No. 131/2002 Z. z. on Higher Education, as amended by related laws. Under this law, higher education institutions are distinguished into a) public institutions based in Slovakia, b) state institutions based in Slovakia, c) private institutions under § 47, and d) foreign institutions based in a member state of the EU. In Slovakia, higher education institutions have the exclusive right to provide, organize and ensure higher education. As in the Czech Republic, institutions provide, organize and ensure higher education within accredited study programs and lifelong learning programs. The Accreditation Commission plays an important role: “it monitors, assesses and independently evaluates quality of educational, scientific, research, developmental, artistic and other creative activities of higher schools, and assists in raising their quality. It comprehensively evaluates the conditions under which these activities take place at each higher education institution and develops recommendations to improve their work. The Accreditation Commission may inform the public of its findings” (§ 82(1) of Act No. 131/2002 Z. z.).

Study programs are offered in three levels, with the first two levels sometimes combined into one whole (for example medicine, theology):

The first-cycle study program is the bachelor study program. It focuses on obtaining theoretical and practical knowledge based on current science or art. Its standard length currently varies by mode of study: full-time three to four academic years, external three to five academic years. Graduates of bachelor study are awarded the title “bachelor” (Bc.) after obtaining 180 credits, completing a bachelor thesis and successfully passing the state final exam, whose integral part is thesis defense.

Second-cycle study programs and programs combining the first two cycles are master’s study programs, engineering study programs and doctoral study programs. This level focuses on obtaining theoretical and practical knowledge based on the current state of science, technology or art and developing the ability to apply this creatively in professional practice. Its standard duration also varies by mode of study: full-time one to three academic years, external two to four academic years. Graduates of master study are awarded the title “master” (Mgr.), and for engineering programs “engineer” (Ing.) after obtaining at least 60 credits (usually 120 credits), completing a diploma thesis and successfully passing the state final exam, with thesis defense as an integral part. In doctoral programs in human medicine, graduates receive the title “doctor of general medicine” (MUDr.), in dental human medicine “doctor of dental medicine” (MDDr.), and in veterinary medicine “doctor of veterinary medicine” (MVDr.). Graduates of programs whose master-level or equivalent title was obtained abroad may take a rigorous examination that includes defense of a rigorous thesis in their field of study or a related field. After this, universities grant the title “doctor of philosophy” (PhDr.) in social science, humanities and healthcare programs. Through the rigorous exam and defense, candidates must demonstrate, through independent study, deeper knowledge in their field and readiness to independently acquire new scientific and practical knowledge and apply that knowledge creatively in practice (see § 53 of Act No. 131/2002 Z. z.).

The third-cycle study program is doctoral study. It focuses on obtaining knowledge based on the current state of scientific and artistic knowledge, especially through the student’s own contribution resulting from scientific research and independent creative work in science or technology, or independent theoretical and creative work in the arts. Its standard duration also varies by mode: full-time three or four academic years, external four or five academic years. A doctoral study may be properly completed by passing the doctoral state exam and defending the dissertation. Graduates of doctoral study receive the title “doctor” (“philosophiae doctor”), abbreviated PhD., which is placed after the name (see § 54 of Act No. 131/2002 Z. z.).

Due to shared historical Czech-Slovak terminology, for quite a long time after 1989 the term postgraduate study continued to be used as a linguistic equivalent to doctoral study. Even in the federal Act No. 172/1990 Z. z. on Higher Education, higher education completed with a state final exam and dissertation defense (essentially master-level study, which could be completed with a bachelor title and certificate as one integrated part) was distinguished from postgraduate and lifelong education. According to that law, postgraduate study was essentially doctoral study and was completed by defending a dissertation (see § 22). It is noteworthy that, in terminology, higher education was not referred to as either graduate or pregraduate education. Neither term appears in terminological dictionaries. The Slovak Dictionary of Contemporary Slovak (2006) includes the adverb graduálne but in the sense of graduality. Graduovať means to attain or reach a certain qualification level of a university teacher, scientist, e.g., to graduate new university graduates; was graduated as master of pharmacy, and so on. Likewise, The Great Dictionary of Foreign Words defines graduovať as to award someone an academic rank. In that dictionary, the adjective postgraduálny is explained as study occurring after completion of higher education; post-diploma (Šaling et al., 1997, p. 961). Under the term “higher education,” understanding generally refers to study according to the above-mentioned federal law (that is, presently master’s, doctoral or engineering). Although the new Act No. 131/2002 Z. z. no longer uses this terminology, in everyday language—including academic circles—it has remained: postgraduate education is primarily doctoral study, though specialization and to some extent rigorous examination (understood as doctoral study) can also be included. Previous (currently bachelor’s and master’s) higher education is usually referred to colloquially as pregraduate, and less often as graduate. It can still be found on official websites. For example, as of 31 July 2015, the Slovak University of Health Sciences still used the term pregraduate study, meaning bachelor, master and doctoral study. We therefore conclude that in the Slovak linguistic area, similar to the Czech one, there exists a historically different interpretation of (pre)graduate and postgraduate study compared with Anglo-American, Anglo-Saxon and 1999 Bologna terminology. Through the influence of the Bologna Process, terminology is gradually changing in Slovakia toward three-cycle education, which should also correspond to “graduate terminology,” where pregraduate education corresponds to the 1st cycle, graduate to the 2nd cycle and postgraduate to the 3rd cycle. Such terminology is also used by some Slovak higher education institutions on official websites.

With respect to qualification prerequisites for social work practice, Slovakia historically—unlike other countries (e.g. Germany or the Czech Republic)—has long prioritized study of social work in higher vocational school systems. Until 2014, there was no legal framework for qualification conditions covering the full scope of social work practice. Over time, partial amendments appeared for particular areas of practice, evolving in different laws. Already under Act No. 305/2005 Z. z. on child legal protection and social guardianship, and on amendments to certain laws, it was established that the activities of arranging substitute family care, social guardianship for children, coordinating admission and implementation of measures for children, or helping children who are abused, sexually exploited, neglected or reasonably suspected of abuse, or who were victims of trafficking may be carried out only by individuals who have obtained higher education in social work or hold recognized proof of such higher education issued by a foreign higher school for the purposes of child legal protection and social guardianship. Likewise, social guardianship for adults could be performed under that law only by individuals with higher education in social work or andragogy. From 1 January 2007, social work in institutions of child legal protection and social guardianship could be performed only by persons with higher education at the first cycle in social work or with recognized evidence of such higher education issued by a foreign higher school; fulfilling tasks of coordinating individual care plans for the child, adult person or family was allowed only for persons with second-cycle higher education in social work. From 2009, under the Social Services Act No. 448/2008 Z. z., a social worker was defined as “a person who obtained higher education in social work at the first level, second level, or has recognized evidence of such higher education issued by a foreign higher school.” From 2014 onward, an amendment added the third cycle, allowing social work in social services to also be performed by doctoral graduates. Such a concept emphasizes both university education and professional practice and distinguishes graduates in social work from social workers in practice. Another area of social work performance involving professional practice is social assessment activity under Act No. 447/2008 Z. z. on monetary compensation for severe disability and amendments to related laws. Until the Social Work Act entered into force, social assessment could be performed by a social worker, and a person could be a social worker if they had higher education in social work at the first, second or third level, or recognized evidence of such higher education from a foreign institution (Mátel, Schavel, 2015).

Act No. 219/2014 Z. z. on social work and conditions for performing certain professional activities in family social matters and amendments to related laws is a legal framework defining qualifications for practice in a unified and key area of social work. The core logic of the Slovak social work law is that only those who have studied social work may perform social work in practice. Lawmakers, however, accepted only first- and second-cycle higher education for qualification requirements. Therefore, since 1 January 2015, for legislative purposes social work as a professional activity can be performed by:

• assistant social worker

• the qualification requirement is obtaining first-cycle higher education in social work. This definitively excludes other study fields, including social services and counselling. In Slovakia, this is a new term and creates a significant distinction between graduates of bachelor and master social work programs in terms of employment opportunities. Assistants may perform professional work in institutions of child legal protection and social guardianship, in social service institutions, and serve as professional instructors of social rehabilitation;

• social worker
• the qualification requirement is higher education at the second cycle in social work. In addition to the same forms of professional application as assistants, social workers may also act as coordinators in developing individual care plans for children, adult persons, or families (for purposes of Act No. 305/2005 Z. z.), and perform social assessment activity (for purposes of Act No. 447/2008 Z. z.). In addition, social workers will be able to perform social work as independent practice.

The law also regulates use of the professional titles assistant social worker and social worker, social worker, specialist (§ 36). These are reserved for those who meet the above qualification conditions. In this way Slovakia aligns with countries where the title social worker is protected by law (cf. Tomeš, 2010). In the current academic year 2015/2016, study programs in social work are accredited and taught on the Portal VŠ (2015) at 10 Slovak higher schools.

The law also regulates the basic legal requirements for education in various specialization areas, that is, postgraduate specialization programs. Legislators considered it necessary to provide a legal framework for introducing separate educational programs because those currently existing from educational institutions lack sufficient legislative support and clearly defined rules. Under the law, all specialization programs must be accredited, with their lists and specific standards to be set by government decree. The social work law itself sets only general conditions for accreditation. Decision-making authority for accreditation remains with the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family. The key body will be the accreditation commission established by the ministry, with members appointed by the minister from experts in both theory and practice.

The authors pointed to ambiguities raised by the new social work law: the absence of the third (doctoral) cycle of study in social work for individuals who have completed the first and second cycles in a different, usually related field. According to the bill’s drafters, people in this situation are not eligible to practice social work despite completing doctoral social work study of three years full-time or five years part-time. During drafting, drafters usually referred to insufficient practical preparation in doctoral study and excessive focus on theory and research. The question is whether this is the common approach of all or most Slovak universities and whether legislation will fundamentally disadvantage doctoral graduates in social work with pregraduate education in another field. In principle, they will be excluded from the professional community and practice. The new law allows these individuals to serve as guarantors of specialization education programs, where a third level of higher education is required (see § 29(2)). On the other hand, guarantors also need five years of practice in the field the education program concerns, which will be very difficult, if not impossible, for those in social work. We believe this exclusion of doctoral graduates will need to be revisited, both at the legislative level and in universities offering doctoral social work study. As an example of good practice, Tomeš (2010) cites Sweden, where highly valued graduates of master’s and doctoral social work study—sociologists of social work—are valued partly because of their sound theoretical education (Mátel, Schavel, 2015).

Since 1999, efforts to improve the quality of higher social work education in Slovakia have been supported by the Association of Educators in Social Work in Slovakia (AVSP), although it does not by far have the same status and influence as its sister organization in the Czech Republic. “Despite almost sixteen years of history, the Association of Educators in Social Work in Slovakia can be said to remain a civil association that does not represent a partner for the Accreditation Commission at the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic. The organization’s activities are shaped by personnel capacity, more precisely by the actual time members can devote to fulfilling its mission and tasks. As a civic association, it is not professionalized and has never employed staff; financial resources for development are lacking” (Schavel, Matulayová, 2012). The decisive influence in maintaining quality of study programs in the field of social work belongs to the Accreditation Commission of the Slovak Republic. In its accepted classification system of fields of study, social work has been under code 3.1.14 since 2003. It is in the group of social, economic and legal sciences (3) and the subgroup of social and behavioral sciences (3.1). The basic document by which the Commission evaluates study programs is the “study field description” prepared in 2003, which is still valid, though it does not meet international education standards in social work (as shown, for example, by IFSW/IASSW Global Standards for the Education and Training of the Social Work Profession, 2004 or the Council of Europe Recommendation Rec(2001)1 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on social workers, 2001). On the contrary, this highly detailed description compels universities to adapt programs more to this older document than to current professional practice needs and newer trends in social work education.

Conclusion

On the basis of our study, there are at least four alternative interpretations of the terms pregraduate, graduate and postgraduate study, and these may be:

• two levels of higher education with linguistic labels: pregraduate and graduate study, where pregraduate corresponds to bachelor education and graduate to master’s and doctoral (e.g. USA, Bologna Declaration, 1999);
• two levels of higher education with linguistic labels: pregraduate and postgraduate study, where pregraduate corresponds to bachelor education and postgraduate to master’s, doctoral and other forms of subsequent professional and specialized study (e.g. United Kingdom, Northern Ireland);
• two levels of higher education with linguistic labels higher and postgraduate study, where the former corresponds rather to master’s (diploma) education and the latter to subsequent doctoral study (pre-Bologna terminology in the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic);
• three levels of higher education with labels corresponding to current Bologna terminology, where pregraduate corresponds to bachelor education, graduate to master’s and postgraduate to doctoral or other subsequent specialized professional education.

Aligning pregraduate education with a master’s title is currently linguistically and professionally unacceptable in light of the Bologna Process. From a terminological perspective, we would recommend the following designations in social work in Slovakia, taking into account the Bologna Process and current legislation:

• bachelor’s – pregraduate social work education, which authorizes graduates to perform social work in the position of assistant social worker and to use the professional title assistant social worker;
• master’s – graduate social work education, authorizing performance as a social worker and use of the professional title social worker;
• doctoral – postgraduate social work education, which authorizes the graduate to act as a guarantor of a specialization education program;
• specialization – postgraduate social work education following master-level study in this field, authorizing graduates of specialization programs to perform specialized professional activity and use the professional title social worker, specialist.

Higher education in social work is becoming the minimum professional preparation standard for social workers in the current global context. In order to fulfill this function properly, it must have sufficiently secured minimum quality standards, including close integration with professional practice. Education itself is not an end in itself, and its primary purpose cannot simply be obtaining a university diploma. Slovak social work is on the right track: in line with international trends it has accepted higher education in social work as a fundamental qualification prerequisite for practicing social work (although there is also divergence here, as doctoral study was excluded from the Slovak social work law). Another key task is to ensure that this education is sufficiently high-quality and very closely linked to professional practice in social work sectors where social workers are active (outside the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family, this is also the justice sector, healthcare and, prospectively, education). This requires minimum educational standards, or in our context, a major innovation in the description of the study program.

Authors: doc. PhDr. Andrej Mátel, PhD., mim. prof. prof. PaedDr. Milana Schavel, PhD. RNDr. Monika Bérešová

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