Social housing in Slovakia Currently, here and in the European Union, we are increasingly witnessing a discourse regarding the issue of housing availability and its sustainability. In the EU countries, there is no legislatively anchored uniform housing policy. The principle of subsidiarity is applied, i.e. the EU authorities deal with the issue of housing if it is possible to ensure the achievement of the strategic goals of the EU more effectively than with the housing policy set by the countries themselves. Various instruments are used in EU countries to achieve defined goals, such as rules for public procurement, rules for the provision of state aid, energy policy (reducing the energy demand of housing and reducing energy poverty1), but also setting cross-sectional national goals for defined periods of time, such as e.g. the fight against poverty and social exclusion.
Housing is one of the social rights and a basic human need, while its quality2 and availability is one of the evaluation indicators of the living standard of the population.3 The right to housing is among the basic human rights enshrined in various documents of international importance, of which the Slovak Republic is also a signatory.4 The right to housing cannot be understood as a claimable right of an individual towards society, but as a right based on the co-responsibility of society towards the citizen.5 (Concept of the State Housing Policy of the Slovak Republic 2020). The right to housing means more than the right to a dwelling.6 Its content is a complex of interrelated and interdependent human rights.7 According to internationally accepted documents, adequate housing is characterized by financial availability8, habitability9, accessibility10, location11 and cultural suitability12. (COHRE, 2004)
What are the housing options?
Under the conditions of the Slovak Republic, we can divide the housing sector13 into private and public rental. We include the private rental sector and privately owned housing in the private sector. The representation of the public rental sector represents from the total housing fund14 approx. 2.5%, while the private rental housing sector is even lower, i.e. around 0.2%. (MVVP SR, 2012) The representation of individual sectors varies in EU countries. The more eastern and southern European countries are, the more the representation of the private rental sector and the public rental sector decreases, i.e. social housing.
Within the private sector, privately owned housing has a prominent position. Almost 90% of apartments and houses in Slovakia are privately owned. (SODB, 2011) Within the EU countries, the private sector has a higher representation in countries such as Estonia, Bulgaria or Romania. On the contrary, in Germany the share of private ownership is at the level of 40%. In the countries of the southern part of Europe, the representation of privately owned housing is higher than in the northern countries. With us, privately owned housing is one of the most preferred ways of securing housing. The insufficient supply of private rental housing15 and the equally low supply of social housing also have an impact on this. 16 A significant negative impact of households preferring privately owned housing is low labor mobility,17 the risk of losing housing in the event of non-fulfillment of obligations arising from the purchase of an apartment18 and, last but not least, the indebtedness of families and individuals for decades of their lives. Privately owned housing is mainly intended for middle and higher income groups of the population.19 We also recommend standard rental housing owned by financial market institutions, developers, investors in construction companies, apartments privately owned by natural persons for the purpose of renting, but also apartments and houses owned by non-governmental organizations. The amount of rent is generated by the market, i.e. supply and demand.20 The mentioned type of housing does not fulfill the role of social housing, i.e. social housing is within the full competence of cities and municipalities. Under certain conditions, the current legislation of the Slovak Republic allows a part of the segment of social rental housing to be taken over into the direct management of non-governmental organizations (n.o.). However, it is a question to what extent adequate support is/will be provided by the state for the initiation of the mentioned changes.21 (Concept of the State Housing Policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) The importance of NGO organizations in the role of administrator and owner of social housing in EU countries is growing (e.g. the Netherlands, Ireland, Austria, Great Britain), mainly due to more efficient housing management associated with lower bureaucracy, a lower level of corruption, by not abusing social housing for political struggle and willingness to ensure social mix and inclusion through social housing. A significant part of NGO organizations, in addition to providing social housing, simultaneously provides complex social services (if necessary) in the area of coexistence, social problems or problems with paying rent, etc. (Lux, 2010)
The public rental housing sector consists of apartments and houses owned by cities and municipalities. 22 The public rental housing sector is identical in scope to social housing. The mentioned segment of housing is subject to a significant degree of regulation of the state housing policy. Through its tools, the state adjusts and corrects the construction, or the development of social housing23 and especially the target groups of the population for which the mentioned type of housing is primarily intended.
What is social housing?
Social housing, just like the housing policies of the EU states, is not regulated by uniform EU legislation, nor is a uniform classification of social housing valid for all EU member states defined. The designation of social housing in individual countries is also not uniform, it is often named as low-rent housing (France), limited non-profit housing (Austria), public housing (Denmark), supported housing (Germany), or sheltered housing (Spain). In our conditions, we may encounter the designation of social housing, as rental housing for social purposes, or as social rental housing. In both cases, emphasis is placed on defining the legal relationship to the given property and the purpose for which this type of housing is intended. In general, social housing is set up to fulfill the need for qualitatively adequate housing for households24 that are unable to succeed in the "competition" on the housing market. Social housing is provided at lower prices than market prices25 and its distribution among the population is ensured through administrative procedures.26 Despite the differences in housing policy and the understanding of social housing in individual EU countries, it is possible to classify access to social housing into three basic models.
The first is the universal model, the goal of which is to make housing available to as many interested parties as possible through municipal, municipal enterprises (e.g. Sweden) or non-governmental non-profit organizations27 (e.g. Denmark, the Netherlands). The stated type of social housing aims to provide qualitatively adequate28 and affordable housing (regulated rent) to the widest possible population, regardless of their income, i.e. there is no "income cap" per household for applicants. In the countries with the mentioned model of social housing, social housing ranges from 18% to 32% of the country's total housing stock (Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark). (UNECE, 2015) For low-income households and households at risk of poverty and social exclusion, it remains possible to draw on various forms of support and contributions (e.g. housing allowance). The result is the provision of a social mix of households from different socio-economic groups of the population and the elimination of social exclusion and residential segregation. Countries applying the universal model of social housing are characterized by a high degree of representation of social housing within the overall housing stock. The described model combats residential segregation and creates conditions for social mix,29 social cohesion and enables access to decent housing for all. (IZA, 2013)
The second model of social housing is the versatile model. The mentioned model has a dominant representation in the housing policies of the EU countries. These are mainly countries whose percentage representation of social housing in the total housing stock ranges from 0% to 19%. (UNECE, 2015) Social housing comes to the attention of households that are unable to provide themselves with decent housing at a reasonable and affordable price. This model responds to the unavailability of housing on the market. Housing is provided to recipients selectively based on defined priority criteria, procedures and rules. This mainly concerns fixed income ceilings. This model of social housing prefers low-income households, vulnerable households and selected vulnerable groups, or households.30 The versatile model of social housing is applied, e.g. in Austria, France, Finland, Luxembourg, Poland and many other EU countries. The Slovak Republic applies the mentioned model of social housing, but in combination with the residual model (together with countries such as, for example, France, Finland, Belgium and Germany).
The last model applied in the EU states is the residual model. The mentioned model is applied mainly in Great Britain, Estonia, Ireland, Malta, Bulgaria, Lithuania and others. The residual model is most often introduced in EU countries where the demand for social housing is not saturated. The goal of the residual model of social housing is to provide adequate and affordable housing31 to selected categories of households, which are mostly directly dependent on various financial transfers and social assistance benefits (e.g. unemployed, disabled, seniors, large families, single-parent families, people after serving a sentence, refugees, young people32, etc.) and in many respects are pushed out or are completely denied access to the market with housing. Social housing is made available to selected groups of at-risk households, while the preferred criterion is the amount of household income. Households with an income higher than the specified maximum household income are prohibited from entering the social housing system. The mentioned model of social housing creates a high risk of residential segregation and concentration of vulnerable households.33 Increased concentration of households characterized by poverty and a high rate of unemployment can lead to other synergistic effects, such as deterioration of the housing stock, increased crime rate, deterioration of tenants' health, household indebtedness, etc., which ultimately means increased expenses on the part of the state and municipalities in solving the unfavorable situation. (UNECE, 2015)
In the approach to social housing, since 2008, there have been changes in government policies in countries such as the Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark. Under the pressure of the economic crisis that was ongoing until recently and still noticeable shortfalls in public finances, the housing policies of the mentioned countries are approaching the all-round model. A significant part of the EU countries (e.g. Germany, Poland, Spain, Italy) with a versatile model of social housing is moving to a residual model, which results in lower availability of social housing, which in turn poses the risk of increasing the number of households in debt with mortgage loans.34
A functional state housing policy in the area of social housing must meet two basic requirements. The requirement for efficiency and effectiveness. The state housing policy can be considered effective if its instruments help households with lower incomes more than households with higher incomes, while none of the socially and income-lower households are excluded from assistance. The requirement for the effectiveness of the housing policy and its tools is considered fulfilled if it does not create an unbalanced state on the housing market (e.g. monopoly on the housing market, growth in real estate prices and rents) and is used in such cases when the stated objective of the housing policy cannot be ensured more cheaply, taking into account public finances, e.g. alternative setting of housing policy tools and state intervention (e.g. housing allowance). (Lux - Kostelecký, 2011)
In the framework of social housing, it is possible to ensure the integration processes of socially disadvantaged groups in order to ensure social and territorial cohesion. Among the most famous concepts are the concept of "housing ready" and "housing first". When ensuring the integration of excluded persons without the competence to maintain long-term (rental) housing, the concept of "housing ready" (transitional housing) is most often used. A low level of competence to maintain long-term housing is often accompanied by many socio-pathological phenomena and family problems (alcoholism, drug addiction, indebtedness, family breakdown, loss of employment, etc.). The philosophy of transitional housing is based on the assumption that real reintegration in the field of housing is possible only in case of continuous resolution of the client's problems through active social services, social work and social and housing policy measures. The above is ensured in practice with the help of several forms of housing35 with targeted social work. Independent housing is the result of individual successes of household members in social life. Active social work accompanies household members through the individual stages of housing with the ultimate goal of achieving independent rental housing (even outside the social rental housing system).36 The opposite approach, when dealing with the availability of housing for the most vulnerable households and individuals who are at risk of acute housing loss or find themselves homeless, is the "housing first" concept. It is based on the assumption that the longer the individual, or the household finds itself in a state of "without permanent and safe housing," the sooner it loses the competence to maintain it permanently. Ensuring independent living is paramount and it should be achieved in the shortest possible time. Housing security takes precedence over solving household social problems. The provision of help and assistance is ensured only after housing has been provided, through the entire package of social and support services (assistance in arranging benefits and allowances, assistance in finding a suitable job, assistance in resolving debt, etc.).
Slovak Republic and social housing
Social housing is legislatively defined in § 21 par. 1 of Act no. 443/2010 Coll. on housing development subsidies and social housing. The basic feature of the definition of social housing is its direct connection to public finances, i.e. social housing includes all apartments, houses, apartment buildings, for the procurement of which public funds were used, or housing and accommodation is financed with the use of public funds. The goal of social housing is to provide adequate and humanly decent housing for individuals and families,37 who cannot provide housing by their own efforts or for those persons who are provided with care through selected social services. It follows from the above that rental housing owned by cities and municipalities is identical to social housing. Social housing is also considered to be selected social services, within which the client is a dependent in accordance with Act 448/2008 Coll. on social services, as amended, care provided in connection with accommodation, such as, e.g. facilities for the elderly, social service homes, nursing care facilities, shelters, dormitories, halfway houses, emergency housing facilities, etc. In order for the mentioned social services to be categorized under social housing, their founder is not decisive, i.e. whether it is a public or non-public provider, but the fact whether the mentioned social services are provided or not provided for profit. In the event that the provider operates a social service for the purpose of not making a profit, it is the authorized recipient of a financial contribution for the provision of a social service from public sources, i.e. from the chapter of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic.
Who is social housing intended for
Social housing within the EU countries is mostly provided to households that are unable to obtain housing on the housing market on their own, e.g. due to income, discrimination, or these households are not interesting for banking houses, which excludes them from the possibility of acquiring privately owned housing (e.g. a mortgage loan). The Slovak Republic applies a dual model of social housing. Social housing provided through construction from public funds (e.g. ŠFRB, MDVaRR SR),39 is legislatively divided into social housing in an apartment of a normal standard and in an apartment of a lower standard. The listed types of social housing are not legislated at the same "quality" level.40 For ordinary standard apartments, the maximum area of an apartment is defined as 80 m2, and apartments of a lower standard may not exceed an area of 60 m2.41 The social housing sector is intended for households and individuals who are disadvantaged or do not have sufficient financial resources to secure and maintain housing on their own. Disadvantage can be short-term or permanent. This is mainly a disadvantage associated with stages of the life cycle,42 health condition (handicap), socio-economic status, but also with discrimination on the ethnic principle or the assignment of the label of "problematic or maladaptive" citizen. Through the state housing policy, the Slovak Republic defines disadvantaged groups of residents on the housing market, including low-income households, young families, large families, seniors,43 single-parent families, women at risk of violence and victims of violence, foreigners and migrants, homeless people, households living in socially excluded locations/slums.44 This also includes groups of persons who are so disadvantaged for various reasons that they are unable to satisfy the need for housing.45 (Concept of the State Housing Policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) Act no. 443/2010 Coll. on subsidies for housing development and on social housing exhaustively defines eligible applicants and recipients of social housing. Social housing may be used by a person/household with a monthly household income of no more than three times the subsistence minimum46 or no more than four times the subsistence minimum, if the member of this household is a person with a severe disability, if it is a household of a single parent with a dependent child or at least one of the household members provides health care, social and generally beneficial social services, education, culture or protection of the inhabitants of the village. Other eligible applicants include persons who have lost institutional care, substitute personal care, foster care or guardian's special care, if they have not exceeded the age of 30, as well as persons living in a household that is provided housing allowance47. The actual process of allocating social housing is determined by the municipalities themselves through the generally binding regulations of the municipality. In addition to the defined conditions established by the Act on Social Housing, these are often "improved" by conditions that municipalities determine themselves through generally binding regulations. In many cases, these conditions create barriers to access to housing. This is mainly about the use of the possibility of providing a financial guarantee for the future tenant, which can mean a significant barrier in the availability of housing for low-income groups of residents (it is not possible to obtain or use any form of social assistance for this purpose).48 The permanent residence of an applicant for housing is often conditioned by its length, i.e. a limit is set for the minimum duration of the applicant's permanent residence in the municipality. Another frequent condition is the absence of obligations towards the municipality, including those that may be several years old (and the applicant may not have been aware of their existence) and have nothing to do with housing (e.g. a fee for a dog, municipal waste,49 small construction waste, etc.). cultural, social, health, and economic areas of social life of the village.50 Many of the conditions are aimed at tracking the applicant's previous residence.
In the event that the applicant was a tenant in the past and the apartment lease was terminated due to the tenant's fault or was the owner of the apartment or family home and it was taken away by foreclosure, he loses the opportunity to apply for social housing.51 In the past, some municipalities and cities introduced a notary's note with an enforcement title into the lease contracts, through which the municipality, in case of non-payment of rent by the tenants, could proceed to eviction52 from the apartment without a court decision.53 It is clear that the mentioned "improvements" of cities and municipalities within the framework of the allocation of social housing reduce the availability of housing for endangered groups of residents, while they rather follow a certain political and tendentious fulfillment of the generally expressed opinion about the unadaptability of selected groups of the population.54 Another factor contributing to the unavailability of social rental housing, both ordinary and of a lower standard, is the setting of the amount of the monthly rent rent, which in many cases exceeds the possibilities of households and their regular incomes. Many families try to "circumvent" financial distress by securing cash, often from non-banking entities, in order to create the impression of "solvency" with the landlord, which puts them in a situation that is difficult to solve, resulting in non-payment and related problems (e.g. forced eviction).55 - 56 Last but not least, the unavailability of social rental housing for selected social groups, including socially excluded households, indirectly "supported" by the state, through a low and relatively unaddressed system of housing allowance to the benefit in material need tied to the state of material need.
Selected housing policy instruments in the area of social housing support
Through housing policy, the most frequently applied social housing support tools in EU countries include supply support (support per brick) and demand support (support per head). Support for the offer57 of social housing consists mainly of support for the construction of housing units (including the reconstruction of non-residential space) or the purchase of flats owned by cities and municipalities. Through them, it is possible to apply regulated rents at the cost level,58 which will make it accessible to vulnerable groups of residents of cities and municipalities.59 (Lux, 2010) Direct financial subsidies from the state intended for the construction of social housing create a "prerequisite" for the addition of the existing, or the creation of a new housing stock in regions where there is a demand for the mentioned form of housing.60 The assumption of addition to the existing, or the creation of a new housing stock, in in the area of social housing in the Slovak Republic, unfortunately, remains only an assumption.61 Within the Slovak Republic, since 2012, the number of completed social apartments has been decreasing dramatically. In 2015, 62,339 apartments owned by the local government were completed (in 2007, 3,149 apartments owned by the local government were completed).63 In 2005, the share of completed apartments owned by the public sector was 14% of the total number of completed apartments compared to private ownership. Private ownership represented 86% of the total completed apartments, but in 2015, the share of completed apartments in public ownership reached the level of 2% (private ownership of completed apartments – 98%). (Kolesárová – Blahová – Kuška, 2016) The insufficient construction of social housing reduces the access of low-income groups of the population to decent, healthy and affordable housing.
Demand support is a system of support through a housing allowance, or for rent. The housing allowance stands on the border between social and housing policy. Increasingly, however, in EU countries it is becoming an instrument of exclusively housing policy. It is part of national government policies responsible for housing and not social policy in the country (e.g. France, Great Britain).64 Housing allowance is an income-tested benefit, which aims to increase the affordability of housing by increasing household income. The allowance is not primarily provided to households living in social housing, but also to households living in apartments within the private rental sector. The basic principle of the housing allowance is to provide an allowance covering the difference between the actual burden of the household on housing expenses and the normatively determined maximum household expenses on housing. Real household housing expenses included in the amount of the contribution are subject to certain standards, such as the size of the apartment, the amount of rent for housing corresponds to the amount of rent in an average attractive location in the city and i.65 The contribution is generally financed from state budgets and in some cases co-financed from the budgets of cities and municipalities. This will ensure the availability of housing for households that many times request the allocation of social housing by the municipality. With the help of the payment of housing allowance by the municipality, it is possible to expand the availability of housing that is owned by private landlords and that would otherwise not be available for selected groups of households at market rents. The mentioned model can also be applied in the case of planned construction of rental apartments by private companies. Another option for municipalities is to rent existing housing units from private owners for a long term (privately owned housing) and provide them to applicants in the form of sublease after agreement with the owner. The motivation of private owners to rent housing stock at the lowest possible price, i.e. a price lower than the market rent, the system of guarantees and guarantees from the municipality should increase. Among the basic and most frequently used ones are the guarantee of a long-term lease, protection against non-payment and debt arising for services connected with the use of the apartment, the guarantee of renovation of the apartment, etc. 66 Among the main advantages of supporting demand are relatively low costs incurred by the state, or villages. The choice of location and housing is not so significantly limited in contrast to housing allocated by the administration (social mix support). Flexibility in regulating the amount of the allowance depending on the real situation on the housing market and household income. Last but not least, the housing allowance significantly increases the mobility of households, e.g. for labor market purposes. (Lux - Kostelecký, 2011) For the purposes of social housing, it is possible under certain circumstances to use the offers of private landlords of rental apartments owned by developers. The mentioned method of securing social housing is applied, e.g. in Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, France and others. In this case, municipalities can provide indirect benefits, or subsidies67 to the private owner, which creates space for negotiations on the amount of future rent for households.68 Social housing provided in this way is highly effective from the point of view of housing distribution among selected target groups of the population,69 it minimizes the risk of developing, or expansion of residentially segregated settlements, while it is also economical from the point of view of taxpayers.70 The supporting pillar is the broad cooperation of the municipality, NGO organizations, management organizations, private landlords and many other actors, whose goal is to permanently make housing available to the most vulnerable groups of the population.71 Under certain conditions, municipalities/NGOs rent available apartments in the segment of rental apartments, which under favorable conditions (reduced rent below the market rent level) they rent to end households. The municipality/NGO becomes the tenant of the apartment/property and the client/household becomes the subtenant. The difference between the amount of market and social rent is compensated from the municipal budget or through state subsidies.
In order for the mentioned model to functionally ensure social housing by transforming it from the private housing sector, interest on the part of private apartment owners is essential.
The housing allowance within the Slovak Republic belongs exclusively to the competence of social policy under the direct management of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the SR.72 The housing allowance is intended for households in a state of material need and is not made available to other types of households (e.g. households below the poverty line73). Among the biggest shortcomings of the current setting of the housing allowance is its direct connection to the state of material need. In the same way, a sublet household cannot count on the housing allowance in its own household budget. The amount of the contribution does not take into account differences in the amount of rent. 74 There is no determination of the standard of adequacy and quality of housing, for which the housing contribution can be provided taking into account the number of household members, or the number of minor children, etc. We noticed a shift in the perception of the housing allowance in 2011, when the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic prepared a draft law on the housing allowance, but the bill itself was not discussed by the Slovak government.75 The setting of the amount of the housing allowance reflects the real costs associated with housing to a significantly limited extent.76 The amount of the allowance does not take into account differences in the amount of rents within the regions of the Slovak Republic.77 Housing policy tools differ in the individual EU countries in the degree of preference for the above-mentioned basic models of social housing support and dependence on the target population groups.
Conclusion
Social housing is an essential part of national and regional social and housing policy. The readiness of municipalities as bearers of significant competences in the area of ensuring affordable housing for residents is key. In the future, the demand for social housing will grow, especially in regions and cities with the possibility of generating job opportunities, which will directly support labor force mobility within the country. The challenge remains the solution of affordable housing for the most endangered groups of residents outside residentially segregated locations with the possibility of all-round development of household members. Author: PhDr. Martin Brňak, PhD. List of bibliographic references
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Law no. 448/2008 Coll. on social services and on amendments to Act no. 455/1991 Coll. on trade entrepreneurship (Trade Act) as amended
Law no. 369/1990 Coll. Act of the Slovak National Council on Municipal Establishment, as amended
1 Under energy poverty (SR) we mean the inability of the population to deal with household energy bills, or a state where the average monthly expenses of the household for the consumption of electricity, gas, heat, heating and preparation of domestic hot water constitute a significant share of the average monthly income. (Act No. 250/2012 Coll. on regulation in network industries) 2 In 2011, she lived in apartments IV. category of 11.6% of the Slovak population. For the first time (since 1961), the share of the population living in the lowest category of apartments increased (1961 - 77.3%, 1971 - 50.4%, 1981 - 22.2%, 1991 - 9.9%, 2001 - 7.5%). SODB 2011 also recorded a decrease in the population of the SR living in category I apartments (1961 – 7.4%, 1971 – 23.1%, 1981 – 46.2%, 1991 – 75.9%, 2001 – 77.8%, 2011 – 72.2%). (Kusá, 2013) 3 The basic mission of the state (in the context of the Slovak Republic) is to create a stable market environment, enabling households to live according to their income, with the aim of supporting labor force mobility. However, the housing market cannot cover the housing needs of all population groups. For this reason, it is necessary to introduce more or less supporting elements within the housing policy, the aim of which is to increase the availability of adequate housing for the widest possible population groups. (Concept of the state housing policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) 4 For example Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), International Covenant on Economic and Cultural Rights (1966), Vancouver Declaration (1976), Global Housing Strategy (1988), UN - Habitat from Istanbul (1996), European Social Charter (1996) and others. At the national level, it is mainly Act No. 365/2004 Coll. anti-discrimination law regulating the principle of equal treatment, including housing. 5 The Constitution of the Slovak Republic does not mention the right to housing itself. In some EU countries, the right to housing is explicitly stated in the constitution, e.g. Belgium, Spain, Greece, Portugal, Finland and others. In Scotland, the local government, or non-profit housing association, the legal obligation to accept an application for an apartment if the application is submitted by a homeless person. In France, a judicially enforceable right to housing has been introduced in the event that a citizen has been denied access to housing despite his efforts. (Fico, 2011) 6 "In order to fight against social exclusion and poverty, the Union recognizes and respects the right to social assistance and housing assistance in order to ensure a dignified existence of all persons who do not have sufficient means." (Lucan, 2012) 7 Basic human rights directly related to housing include the right to adequate housing, the right to an adequate standard of living, the right to access to safe drinking water and sanitary facilities, the right to the highest possible standard of physical and mental health, the right to a safe and healthy environment, the child's right to an environment suitable for physical and mental development, the right to access resources, including energy for cooking, heating and lighting, the right to access housing and associated services without discrimination of gender, race, ethnicity and other status, the right to privacy, family and home without arbitrary interference from the outside, the right to security, including the security of a legal form of housing, the right to protection against forced eviction and the destruction or demolition of the dwelling even in situations of military occupation, international and civil armed conflicts, the creation and construction of foreign dwellings, relocation of the population and development projects, etc. (COHRE, 2004) 8 Household financial costs associated with housing should be at such a level that the satisfaction of other basic needs is not threatened (difficult). 9 Housing must provide sufficient space and protect household members from cold, humidity, heat, rain, wind and other threats to health. 10 Housing must be accessible to those who have the right to it. Disadvantaged groups must be given full and permanent access to suitable housing. 11 Housing must be located in a location that allows access to work opportunities, health services, schools, childcare centers and other social facilities. 12 The construction of the dwelling, the building materials used and accompanying procedures must properly enable the expression of cultural identity and diversity of housing.
13 Currently, there are 370 apartments per 1,000 inhabitants in the Slovak Republic. After Poland, this is the second lowest proportion of apartments in the EU per 1,000 inhabitants. It is necessary to add that expert estimates within the results and figures from SOBD 2011 indicate that the stated proportion of apartments may actually be lower by up to 10%. (Housing Europe, 2015) In the Slovak Republic, there are 329 occupied apartments per 1,000 inhabitants, which represents the lowest physical availability of housing in the EU. (Kusá, 2013) 14 The representation of the private rental sector and social housing compared to the total housing stock is categorized into four basic classes within the EU countries: high representation (>19%), medium representation (11-19%), low representation (5-10%) and very low representation (4-0%). The Slovak Republic is located in the zone of very low representation of both housing sectors. 15 In 2011, there were free or more than 200,000 unoccupied housing units. (SODB, 2011) 16 The share of spent public resources of the Slovak Republic (out of total GDP) intended to support housing development is decreasing. In 2005, the SR spent 0.55% of the total GDP, while in 2013 it was 0.36% of the country's total GDP. In the expenses incurred from the state budget, we note the same negative trend, from 2.39% (2005) to 0.99% (2013). (Concept of the state housing policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) 17 In the last five-year period in Slovakia in 2007, 3.4% of the population moved to another apartment (Germany 10.2%, Denmark 16.5%, Sweden 21.3%). In 2012, the share of the population within the Slovak Republic increased to 7.7% (Germany 20.8%, Denmark 31.3%, Sweden 37.6%. (EU SILC, 2012) 18 Research results of Mikeszova et al. (2010) demonstrated that households (CR) that repay mortgage loans and do not have sufficient financial reserves get into serious financial problems when a household member loses their job (even in the short term) and the subsequent loss of income. 19 With the support of the state, loans from ŠFRB, construction savings and mortgage loans are made available to the middle income group of the population in order to secure housing. 20 The share of costs associated with housing in disposable income reached 19.9% in 2012 in the Slovak Republic. The average in the EU-28 was 21.2% (e.g. Belgium 22.1%, Czech Republic 24.6%, France 17.9%, Netherlands 29.2%, Luxembourg 14.0%, Germany 27.9%). The highest costs associated with housing in 2012 were borne by households in Greece, and on the contrary, the lowest were recorded in Malta (11.0%). Included in the costs were mortgages, housing loans, costs for gas, electricity, heating and the costs of maintaining and using the apartment. (Concept of the state housing policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) 21 On the one hand, it creates the aforementioned prerequisite for the creation of new NGO organizations within III. sector directly by municipalities and cities in the role of social housing administrators. On the other hand, it is possible to transform existing municipal management companies (e.g. s.r.o.) into non-profit organizations. 22 The number of apartments for which construction has started and completed apartments owned by cities and municipalities is decreasing. In 2009, the construction of 2,719 housing units was started, while in 2013 the number of started housing units fell to 575 units. In 2013, 1,064 apartments in municipal ownership were completed, while in 2009, 2,305 apartments were completed. From the point of view of the regions, the most massive construction of apartments during the entire monitored period was in the Bratislava region, and conversely, the lowest in the Banskobystricky region. (Concept of the state housing policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) 23 Cities and municipalities have an obligation to procure and approve housing development programs and cooperate in creating suitable conditions for housing. (Act No. 369/1990 Coll. on municipal establishment, as amended) 24 In 2013, 4.5% of households in the Slovak Republic faced poor housing conditions. In 2014, it was 4.3% of households. (EU SILC, 2014) In 2012, 7.9% of households in the Slovak Republic with an income above the poverty line were dissatisfied with housing, while 19.1% of households with an income below the poverty line were dissatisfied.
Households facing housing shortages (2012) are most dissatisfied with the quality of electrical installation (29.7%), lack of space in the apartment (28.2%), lack of daylight (27.7%), sewage and plumbing (27.6%) and problems with leaking roofs and damp walls (22.9%). (EU SILC, 2013) 25 Under the conditions of the Slovak Republic, the amount of rent is regulated by Measure of the Ministry of Finance of the Slovak Republic of December 1, 2011 no. 01/R/2011, amending the measure of the Ministry of Finance of the Slovak Republic dated April 23, 2008 no. 01/R/2008 on the regulation of apartment rental prices as amended by measure dated September 25, 2008 no. 02/R/2008. In § 2 par. 1 states the maximum amount of annual rent in the amount of 5% of the purchase price of the apartment. The above applies to apartments procured through the construction, reconstruction or completion of apartments and approved after February 1, 2001 and procured from the state budget, state funds, budgets of municipalities and higher territorial units. The above does not apply to apartments of housing cooperatives established or founded after 1958, apartments owned by natural persons and apartments in apartment buildings built without the participation of public funds, etc. (more detailed § 4 no. measure no. 01/R/2011). The maximum amount of rent for apartments that are not covered by § 2 and § 4 are exhaustively defined by § 1 and § 4a of the mentioned measure of the Ministry of Finance of the Slovak Republic. Rent defined in the above manner is referred to as regulated, cost, or economic rent. 26 The process of allocating social housing is not determined by legislation. Municipalities have the full authority to determine the method of allocating apartments through elected representatives. In 2010, most cities and municipalities allocated apartments to applicants for social housing through a waiting list (66%). 50% of municipalities proceeded through individual assessment of applications. 21% of cities and municipalities allocated social housing to applicants using a lottery. Through a point system with the aim of assigning priorities to certain factors in the application and auction, social housing is allocated in 11% of cities and municipalities. In many municipalities, different procedures are applied at the same time. (Suchalová – Staroňová, 2010) 27 In the Slovak Republic, eligible applicants for funds for housing provision, management and maintenance of apartments from the State Housing Development Fund also include non-governmental organizations providing generally beneficial services (n.o.), whose founder or one of the founders is a municipality or higher territorial unit, if their contribution constitutes at least 51% of the non-profit organization's assets and they are represented by more than half of the members in the non-profit organization's administrative board. (Act No. 443/2010 Coll. on subsidies for housing development and on social housing) 28 Among the generally used indicators of housing quality can be considered the degree of overcrowding of dwellings based on EU SILC data. In 2013, 17.3% of EU residents lived in overcrowded dwellings. The problem with insufficient space in the dwelling is felt by four out of ten inhabitants of Slovakia (in 2014 – 38.6% of the Slovak population). The share of occupied apartments with 2 or more households in the Slovak Republic has been growing since 1991: in 1961 - 18.4%, in 1971 - 15.1%, 1981 - 15.1%, 1991 - 11.8%, 2001 - 18.8% and in 2011 - 20.9%. (Vlačuha – Kováčová – Velčická, 2015) 29 An example of segregation and concentration of households with problems is the housing estate Luník IX. The housing estate began to be built in the 1970s as an experimental construction of an ABC-type housing estate (A – army, B – security, C – gypsies). As a result of short-sighted measures (concentration of mainly non-payers and "non-adaptable residents" from other parts of the city), Luník IX became one of the largest slums in Central Europe. 30 In EU countries, households mainly use a combination of their own income and housing allowance. 31 adequate privacy, adequate space, adequate security, adequate lighting and ventilation, adequate basic infrastructure, adequate location with respect to employment and basic amenities, all at an affordable cost... (CESCR, 1991) 32 According to EU-SILC data, approximately 67% (2014) of Slovak residents aged 18-34 live with their parents. This is the second highest % of young people in EU countries (after Greece - 70.3%). The average of EU countries is 48.1%.
(EU SILC, 2014) Not infrequently, the mentioned issue is trivialized in the context of "mama hotel", which does not explain the fact that living together with parents is more common in EU countries with lower physical availability of housing than in countries with a higher number of apartments per 1000 inhabitants. (Kusá, 2013) 33 In practice (SR), we mainly encounter the fact that the construction of apartments of a lower standard is often carried out in residentially segregated locations with atypical technical solutions. It is mainly a loft solution of the building, which reduces the cost of construction and the quality of housing, and at the same time increases the cost of housing. The location of social housing in residentially segregated localities with only partial engineering equipment results in the provision of social housing without connection to hot water or central heating (the technical deficiencies mentioned are compensated by electric heating and electric flow water heaters, which in both cases increases the economic cost of housing). 34 Residents of the Slovak Republic get into debt the fastest among all EU countries. From 2017, the National Bank of Slovakia plans to significantly tighten the conditions for providing mortgage loans. The aim of the measures is to ensure the availability of loans only to those applicants who have a sufficient amount of their own savings and will be able to repay the loan even in crisis situations. This measure will create pressure on the availability of social housing. 35 from temporary accommodation to permanent rental housing ... 36 Several studies point out that the transitional housing model with too strict conditions for individual levels of housing can create risks and reduce the effectiveness of housing itself. The consequence of very strict conditions is the stagnation of households and individuals stuck between individual levels of housing without the possibility of advancement and fulfillment of the goal, i.e. independent housing. The results of the research focused on transitional housing (CR) show that many families who were included in the transitional housing system and achieved rapid progress in the housing system were not caused by absorbing the rules and acquiring (restoring) the competencies necessary to maintain independent housing. Rather, it turns out that the mentioned households already had the required competencies before entering the system. Their problem was the lack of affordable housing. (Kocman – Klepal, 2015) Despite the existing shortcomings of the transitional housing model, voices from the ranks of experts and politicians about the "widespread" introduction of transitional housing in the solution of the so-called "Roma issue". At the beginning of 2017, the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic announces the announcement of a call for support of transitional housing programs. In the issue of financial availability of housing, e.g. with the support of the state (realization of the housing allowance), these "voices" can no longer be heard. 37 In 2012, most households (SR) felt pollution and dirt (16.2%), vandalism, crime and violence (15.1%), noise from neighbors or from the street (14.2%), difficulties with access to food (13.5%), difficulties with access to public transport (11.9%) and basic health care (11.2%) as the biggest problems in their surroundings/neighborhood. (EU SILC, 2012) 38 Versatile and residual model of social housing. 39 and will maintain the rental character for at least 20 years. About their further "fate", i.e. the elected representatives of the municipalities themselves will decide whether they will retain their rental character even after the mentioned period or will be sold into private ownership. 40 The total useful area of an apartment of a lower standard is at least 15 m2, while the size of the area per inhabitant must not be less than 12 m2 and 6 m2 for each other person who lives with him in the household. The minimum requirements for the equipment of the apartment are a connection to a drinking water supply with the technical possibility of installing equipment for cooking, hot water preparation, the possibility of installing equipment for personal hygiene, drainage of waste water with the technical possibility of installing a flush toilet, and the technical possibility of installing heating elements for local heating of living rooms. Spaces for fuel storage must be part of the home equipment of buildings with apartments of a lower standard, which are locally heated with solid fuel.
(Decree No. 259/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic on details on requirements for the internal environment of buildings and on minimum requirements for apartments of a lower standard and for accommodation facilities) 41 The maximum area of apartments can be exceeded by 10% of the floor area in the case of an apartment that is a national cultural monument or is located in a location included in the World Heritage List or is intended for housing for persons with severe disabilities (disability is exhaustively defined by Act No. 443/2010 Coll. on Subsidies for Housing Development and on Social Housing). The stated definition of the floor area of apartments is narrowed within the conditions for obtaining a subsidy from public funds (for selected applicants), when the average floor area of social apartments calculated from the total apartments provided may not exceed 60 m2 in the case of an apartment of a normal standard and 55 m2 in the case of apartments of a lower standard. This ensures that subsidy applicants do not use public funds for the construction of apartments with the maximum possible floor area. 42 Age of the individual and his family environment, i.e. factors affecting life cycles affect not only the probability of surviving key life situations (partnership, birth of a child, retirement, etc.), but also the probability of experiencing a drop in income or an increase in it. (Gerbery – Lesay – Škobla, 2007) 43 Seniors are a high-risk group, especially after the death of one of the spouses. The loss of income in these circumstances is significant. The most endangered are childless seniors who are directly exposed to the loss of housing, and who face it only at the expense of reducing expenses in other areas of life (health, culture, food, etc.) 44 In strategic government and professional documents, they are often referred to as marginalized Roma communities. The image of the "Roma community" is a political fiction that is developed and supported by state power. (Jakoubek – Hirt, 2004) 45 For example long-term unemployed, active drug users, etc. (Concept of the state housing policy of the Slovak Republic 2020) 46 The subsistence minimum for the household is calculated from the sums of the subsistence minimum for the household members valid as of December 31 of the calendar year of the previous year in which the apartment was rented. 47 For example Act No. 403/1990 Coll. on mitigating the consequences of certain property crimes, as amended. 48 Act 443/2010 Coll. on subsidies for housing development and on social housing allows a clause on a financial guarantee to be inserted into the rental agreement, the amount of which may not exceed the amount of a maximum of six months' rent. 49 The said tax often becomes an insurmountable obstacle for low-income groups of the population, or those whose income consists mainly of financial aid benefits. There is no benefit in material need, which would at least partially compensate the tax burden of household members. 50 Unfortunately, the regulations themselves no longer indicate measurable indicators and the weight of individual indicators, according to which an objective assessment of individual applications is ensured. This can represent a terminological and methodological problem in the case of ascertaining the educational conditions in the household or the cultural, social, health and economic contribution of the applicant. 51 Other preferred conditions include the condition that the applicant must not be a tenant, owner or co-owner of any apartment or family house. This means that, e.g. in the case of households that have applied for a divorce and it has not yet been decided on the undivided ownership of the spouses, the object of which is also an apartment or a family home, social housing becomes unavailable for such an applicant. 52 In 2012, 16.5% of households (SR) stated eviction as the main reason for leaving housing (6.6% EU-28). (EU SILC, 2012) 53 Future tenants also had to bear the financial costs associated with the creation of the notary's minutes. The court ruled that the mentioned method of concluding the lease agreement was contrary to the law. 54 States cannot justify their failure to implement international obligations by referring to domestic legislation that is not in accordance with international standards.
(COHRE, 2004) 55 The European Commission recommends that the Slovak Republic provide alternative housing in the event of forced eviction of the household, emphasizing that the measure must not promote residential segregation. (European Commission, 2016) 56 For example 15% of Roma households in the Slovak Republic register arrears for water, housing, telephone, etc. (World Bank, 2012) Most Roma households registered arrears related to electricity supply (10.8%), housing, heating, telephone (7.6%) and water supply (6.1%). Roma households most often obtain hot water through wood-burning stoves (55.8%) and electric flow heaters (16.7%). (Filadelfiová-Gerbery-Škobla, 2006) In 2010, up to 41.2% of Roma households were unable to regularly pay the fees associated with the supply of electricity. (Filadifelová-Gerbery, 2012) 57 However, not every subsidized construction of apartments with the participation of public resources can be considered as social housing. Construction through building savings or a mortgage loan, which is intended for future (market) rental, cannot be considered social housing. Social housing is primarily defined by the amount of rent, i.e. rents set below the market rent limit. (Lux, 2011) 58 In EU countries, in addition to the already mentioned cost rent, rent tied to income is also applied. The mentioned method of determining the amount of rent makes it possible to increase the amount of rent in time intervals (e.g. after 10 years) depending on the financial possibilities of households up to the amount of market rent. In this way, the continuous transition of the household from the social housing segment to the rented housing segment is ensured (e.g. Germany). (Lux, 2010) 59 Not infrequently, we witness political "populism" when representatives of cities and municipalities make decisions about the conditions for the allocation of social housing and defining the target group of residents for whom the housing is intended. Decisions are more motivated to fulfill the needs and ideas about social housing of the majority population than to the real needs of endangered groups of residents of municipalities and cities. 60 By the end of 2000, the Slovak Republic had to set aside approximately 20% of the existing rental fund for socially weaker groups. This political goal was not fulfilled. (Concept of the state housing policy until the year 2000) 61 The total number of completed apartments within the Slovak Republic is growing, even if it still does not reach the value of completed apartments from 2009, when the effects of the economic crisis began to be felt in our country. In 2015, a total of 15,471 apartments were completed (2009 – 18,834 apartments). The mentioned positive trend exclusively refers to completed apartments in private ownership intended mainly for private purposes, for sale or for rent at market rent. (Kolesárová – Blahová – Kuška, 2016) 62 i.e. owned by municipalities and higher territorial units. 63 Owned by the local government, 2,032 apartments were completed in 2005, 2006 – 2,143 apartments, 2007 – 3,149 apartments, 2008 – 2,631 apartments, 2009 – 2,305 apartments, 2010 – 2,481 apartments, 2011 – 1,544 apartments, 2012 – 1,544 apartments, 2013 – 1,064 apartments, 2014 – 680 apartments and 2015 - 339 apartments. (Kolesárová – Blahová – Kuška, 2016) 64 In the EU countries, the contribution aimed at increasing the availability of housing has been introduced since the 1960s (Germany, France, Great Britain, etc. (Lux - Kostelecký, 2011) 65 The generally accepted threshold for the disproportionate burden of housing expenses is 40% of the total household income. 66 Lease contracts are generally concluded for 10 years or more. Because the tenant of the apartments is the municipality, it guarantees regular payment of the agreed rent in full. Alternatively, non-fulfillment of sub-rent payment obligations by sub-tenants and the associated debt is borne in full by the municipality. The mentioned risk leads municipalities and cities to responsible selection of subtenants. 67 e.g. donate land, or rent, sell land for a nominal price, tax breaks, etc. 68 The municipality will rent part of the newly created housing fund at a reduced price, which it will provide to low-income households. The mentioned model is desirable mainly because of the creation of a social mix, since part of the housing stock from the given complex will be rented at market prices and part at reduced (regulated) rents. 69 For example
in Great Britain, 87% of contracts secured in this way proceed without problems, only 2% of contracted contracts were terminated by notice. (Lux, 2010) 70 Compared to the "mass" construction of social housing from public funds. 71 In most cases, the mentioned tasks are provided by NGO organizations established for the given purpose. Organizations are looking for potential lessors from among private owners of apartments and real estate. The motivational component for renting private property is the system of guarantees, which are supposed to compensate and reduce the possible risk from renting. 72 In the conditions of the Slovak Republic, it is defined in Act no. 417/2013 Coll. about help in material need. It belongs to the system of assistance in material need, and the right to the allowance is conditional on the state of material need. The housing allowance is intended for partial reimbursement of housing-related costs, and its recognition is relatively strictly set. Many households in material need do not receive the mentioned allowance, due to failure to meet the conditions established by law. The contribution is not available to residents of slums concentrated mainly in eastern and central Slovakia. The reason for the unavailability of the grant is the lack of a title deed (dwellings built without a building permit and often on unsettled land), or rental agreement for housing. 73 In 2014, 12.6% of the Slovak population was at risk of poverty. Only 3 regions (Bratislavský, Trnavský, Trenčínský kraj) achieved values below the national average. The remaining regions achieved above-average values (Nitrian region 13.2%, Žilina region 13.5%, Banskobystrický 17.1%, Prešovský region 16.0%, Košice region 13.7%). 28.4% of households with 2 adults and 3 or more dependent children lived below the poverty line in 2014. More than 30% (30.6) of households consisting of 1 adult and 1 dependent child lived below the poverty line. From the point of view of economic activity, almost 50% (48.7%) of the unemployed live or are directly at risk of poverty. 6.7% of pensioners were at risk of poverty in 2014. (EU SILC, 2015) 74 The amount of cost rent changes depending on the time of construction of the apartments. In principle, the newer the construction, the higher the rent. 75 Developing a new legal regulation of the housing allowance, which includes the exclusion of the housing allowance from aid in material need, is one of the priority tasks of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications of the Slovak Republic defined in the Concept of the State Housing Policy of the Slovak Republic 2020 with a submission deadline of 31.12.2018. Part of the change is to establish the conditions for obtaining the allowance depending on the size of the household, the form of housing, the household's income situation, etc. 76 Currently, the amount of the housing allowance for an individual in material need is set at €55.80, for a citizen in material need and natural persons who are jointly assessed with a citizen in material need at €89.20. The housing allowance does not cover housing costs in full, its amount is intended to "motivate" the recipient either to a higher financial participation in covering housing needs or to secure more affordable housing. The amount of the housing allowance has not changed since 2003. 77 Expenses for housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels. In regional towns €939/person/year, other cities €847/person/year, other municipalities €662/person/year. (ŠU SR, 2015)
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